Course:KIN355/2020 Projects/Aerobic Endurance
Force creation and stability at the time of projection
Defining the Concept and Its Importance
Aerobic endurance, or aerobic fitness, refers to the body’s ability to deliver and utilize oxygen in working muscles over a period of time (Armstrong & Barker, 2011, p.59). Human beings are in a constant state of energy expenditure, as well as incredibly dependent on the efficiency of the oxygen delivery system within the body to ensure that the muscles can withstand activities for long periods of time. Research has shown that aerobic endurance is present at birth in the neonate in primitive motor movements, such as vigorous kicking, and will continue to increase over time as the child ages (Armstrong & Welsman, 2000, p.141). It is reasonable to infer that the increase seen in aerobic endurance can be attributed to the rapid changes in muscle size, lung capacity, and development of new motor skills, such as walking, jumping, and running, during the young childhood years (ages 0-4) (Carson et al., 2017). For this reason, contemporary research has began to focus on the importance of additional aerobic endurance activities in young children to evaluate its influence on motor development and movement in later childhood years (Carson et al., 2017).
In contrast to the previous belief that infants and young children gain enough aerobic endurance through inherited activities (i.e., learning to kick, walk, and run), it has been shown that advancements in gross and fine motor developments are seen in infants and young children participating in additional aerobically demanding activities. (Timmons et al., 2012) Examples of these activities include, infants participating in passive cycling, and preschool children participating in consistent dance classes (Timmons et al., 2012). Activities like tag or running games also promote the increase in heart-rate which would also benefit a child's aerobic endurance. Therefore, emphasis has been placed on the encouragement of participation in additional physically demanding aerobic endurance activities within the population of young children, as it has major implications for advancements in fine and gross motor development in later years (Carson et al., 2017).
Role in Childhood Development and Contemporary Considerations
It has been previously understood that infants gain enough aerobic activity to build strong aerobic endurance through inherited primitive movements and reflexes (Timmons et al., 2012).. This belief is rooted in the fact that infants and young children exert their bodies through the development of motor movements present in the early stages of life (Timmons et al., 2012). While young children are able to gradually gain aerobic endurance through these movements, not all children are able to develop the same motor skills at the same pace as others. For example, healthy babies begin vigorously kicking their legs around 2 months of age with and without stimuli (Heathcock & Galloway, 2009). Research has highlighted that the rate at which these early aerobic movements appear can be increased through additional aerobic endurance training in the form of early movement stimulation of the feet (Heathcock & Galloway, 2009). Furthermore, research has shown that premature and/or low birthweight (LBW) infants have major developmental motor delays through young childhood, as they are significantly underdeveloped (Campbell et al., 2012). This implies that preterm and LBW infants have a lesser capacity to take in and deliver oxygen (lower aerobic endurance) than other children of the same age. Therefore, it is important to build a child’s aerobic endurance through the use of additional aerobic activities to reach developmental milestones in later years, especially in regards to infants with health issues present at birth. This is highlighted in a study conducted in 2017 by Sgandurra et al., where an early intervention for premature infants aimed at increasing motor development through the use of aerobically demanding motor activities was implemented for a four week period. It was observed after the duration of the intervention that the rate of motor development of the infants participating in the intervention was significantly higher than that of the control group (Sganduraa et al., 2017).
Building aerobic endurance through aerobic exercise activities has also been linked to improvements in cognitive functioning. Research has shown that both additional acute and chronic bouts of aerobic exercise during childhood has many positive influences on performance in later childhood, including academic performance and increases in efficiency of executive cognitive functioning (Lima et al., 2018; Best, 2010). It was shown that during chronic aerobic training, there was an increase in cardio-respiratory functioning over time, which increased the efficiency of oxygen delivery within the body, and increased the child’s overall aerobic endurance (Best, 2010). It is also seen that chronic aerobic training to build aerobic endurance during early childhood may have major physical health implications for the future (Baquet, van Praagh, & Berthoin, 2003). It is seen that young children who are exposed to early movement activities at an early age, as well as those who participate in aerobic training activities, are more likely to continue to be physically active through teenage years, and even into adulthood (Baquet, van Praagh, & Berthoin, 2003). As such, it is common knowledge that the more physically active an individual, the better the overall health of the individual. It can also be inferred that an individual who continues to be active will have better aerobic endurance than those who are not, as oxygen delivery will be more efficient (Armstrong & Barker, 2010). While these studies provide evidence that aerobic training and endurance during childhood can lead to a healthier adult life, there is still a need for more literature examining the appropriate length of time a child should aerobically train for (Armstrong & Barker, 2010).
Though there are many benefits to strengthening aerobic endurance in young children, it is important to note that any sort of aerobic training must be done properly and safely to ensure optimal results (Myers et al., 2017). If not completed properly, children are at risk for many sports related injuries including epiphyseal plate injuries (fractures) and soft tissue injuries (Myers et al., 2017). Whether it be building endurance through physical or locomotor play, or structured aerobic exercise activities, children are at risk for injury if not properly monitored, and if proper development of the aerobic training program has not occurred (Myers et al., 2017). This can have adverse effects on aerobic endurance during childhood due to the cessation of exercise and increase in sedentary behaviour to accommodate healing. Further, this may implicate a potential decrease in a child’s physical activity behaviour in later life due to past negative experiences associated with aerobic activity.
Practical Applications
Cone Stacking
The purpose of the game is to try and get all your teams' pylons on top of the opposite teams pylons. This game would be targeted towards younger children around the age of 7 to 10 years old. You will need 2 colours of pylons and a field for the children to run in. To begin you would establish the boundaries. To make the game more challenging you can introduce a bigger playing field or a smaller field to make it easier for younger children. Next you would divide the team into 2 groups, I would suggest having smaller groups as it would be easier to manage the pylons (ex: 2 vs. 2 with 6-8 cones per team). You could add more or less pylons to make the game easier or harder. Next you will then give a set of coloured pylons to each team and get the teams to place their pylons anywhere on their side of the field. When they hear the word “go” that is when they can grab one of their pylons and see if they can put their pylons on top of their opponent's pylons. When they cross the middle of the field, they can be tagged by the opponents and will have to walk back to their side with their pylon. The game will continue until a team has all their cones on top of their opponents pylons.
Food Chain Tag
The purpose of this game is to help children understand the food chain and how it works. This game is directed to older children who are 12 to 15 years old who are learning about nature's food chains. For the basics of the game, you will only need 3 colours of pinnies to distinguish the groups apart and preferably a forest. To start the game you divide the children up into 3 groups, herbivores, omnivores and carnivores. Each team will receive a coloured pinnie that will indicate which team they are on. The herbivores goal is to run away and to not be tagged by the omnivores or the carnivores. The Omnivore's goal is to run away from the carnivores but can also tag the herbivores, and the carnivores can tag both the omnivores and the herbivores. After dividing the children, you will allow the herbivores to run away and hide in the forest first, then you will let the omnivore's leave second and finally the carnivores last. When the child has been tagged by their opponent, they will come back to the ring of life (you) and you will give the child a new pinny colour and they’re goal is to tag their new opponents.If the children are older, you can introduce natural hazards like floods, hurricanes or freezing temperatures to the game. The teacher or adult would be the hazards and would run around and tag the children. To make the game easier, you can play the game in an open field so that everyone can where everyone is.
Summary
Aerobic endurance is the body’s ability to deliver and utilize oxygen in muscles over a period. It will increase as we age, as the muscles, lung capacity and motor skills develop. Although aerobic endurance is present in primitive movements of neonates, additional aerobic activities, like those physical activities can increase heart-rate, if done properly and safely, can contribute to advancements in motor development of children, act as a form of early movement stimulation, facilitate the development of those children who have health issues at birth and have lower aerobic endurance, and improve cognitive functions and general health in later life.
References
Armstrong, N., & Barker, A. R. (2010). Endurance Training and Elite Young Athletes. The Elite Young Athlete Medicine and Sport Science, 56, 59-83. doi:10.1159/000320633
Armstrong, N., & Welsman, J. R. (2000). Development of aerobic fitness during childhood and adolescence. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12(2), 128-149. doi:10.1123/pes.12.2.128
Baquet, G., van Praagh, E., & Berthoin, S. (2003). Endurance training and aerobic fitness in young people. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 33(15), 1127–1143. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333150-00004
Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30(4), 331-351. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001
Campbell, S. K., Gaebler-Spira, D., Zawacki, L., Clark, A., Boynewicz, K., deRegnier, R., Kuroda, M. M., Bhat, R., Yu, J., Campise-Luther, R., Kale, D., Bulanda, M., Zhou, X. J. (2012). Effects on motor development of kicking and stepping exercise in preterm infants with periventricular brain injury: A pilot study. Journal of Pediatric Rehabilitation Medicine, 5(1), 15-27. doi:10.3233/PRM-2011-0185
Carson, V., Lee, E., Hewitt, L., Jennings, C., Hunter, S., Kuzik, N., Stearns, J. A., Unrau, S. P., Poitras, V. J., Gray, C., Adamo, K. B., Janssen, I., Okely, A. D., Spence, J. C., Timmons, B. W., Sampson, M., Tremblay, M. S. (2017). Systematic review of the relationships between physical activity and health indicators in the early years (0-4 years). BMC Public Health, 17(S5), 854-63. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4860-0
Heathcock, J. C., & Galloway, J. C. C. (2009). Exploring objects with feet advances movement in infants born preterm: a randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy, 89(10), 1027–1038. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.2522/ptj.20080278
Lima, R. A., Larsen, L. R., Bugge, A., & Andersen, L. B. (2018). Physical fitness is longitudinally associated with academic performance during childhood and adolescence, and waist circumference mediated the relationship. Pediatric Exercise Science, 30(3), 317-325. doi:10.1123/pes.2017-0206
Myers, A. M., Beam, N. W., & Fakhoury, J. D. (2017). Resistance training for children and adolescents. Translational pediatrics, 6(3), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2017.04.01
Sgandurra, G., Lorentzen, J., Inguaggiato, E., Bartalena, L., Beani, E., Cecchi, F., Dario, P., Giampietri, M., Greisen, G., Herskind, A., Nielsen, J. B., Rossi, G., Cioni, G. On behalf of The CareToy Consortium. (2017). A randomized clinical trial in preterm infants on the effects of a home-based early intervention with the 'CareToy system'. PloS One, 12(3), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173521
Timmons, B. W., LeBlanc, A. G., Carson, V., Connor Gorber, S., Dillman, C., Janssen, I., Kho, M. E., Spence, J. C., Stearns, J. A., & Tremblay, M. S. (2012). Systematic review of physical activity and health in the early years (aged 0-4 years). Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism, 37(4), 773–792. https://doiorg.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/10.1139/h2012-070