Course:GEOS303/2023/Singapore

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A view of the Gardens by the Bay nature park, outer harbor
Administrative Map of Singapore

Singapore, formally known as the Republic of Singapore, is a nation and city-state located on an island in maritime Southeast Asia. The nation's terrain consists of a main island, 63 smaller islands and islets, and one distant islet. The total size of these land masses has grown by around 25% since the country gained independence due to massive operations to reclaim land from the sea. Despite its high population density, the nation has many green and recreational places due to effective urban planning.[1]

It's located within a narrow range of 1 to 2 degrees from the Equator, resulting in a rich variety of ecosystems within its limited geographical space. Some of them can be categorized as Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems, while others fall under Coastal and Marine Ecosystems. These organisms are distinguished by their abundant variety of species and intricate patterns of interactions. Tropical ecosystems often exhibit structural complexity, stability, and a high abundance of long-lived organisms with low reproduction rates. [2]

Climate and biomes

Climate characteristics

Four seasons and their descriptions of Singapore climate.http://www.weather.gov.sg/climate-climate-of-singapore/

Singapore has a typical tropical rainforest climate. The average precipitation ( > 150mm) and average temperature ( > 26˚C) remain high throughout the whole year. The temperature, sunshine duration, and amount of sunlight received are constant annually. Seasonality of precipitation varies, including the Northeast Monsoon Season (December-early March) and Southwest Monsoon Season(June-September) with two Inter-monsoon Periods (Late March-May and October-November) between them [3]. Although Singapore is small in land area, the microclimate can vary due to topography. The westside of mountain usually has more precipitation than the east side when the rain shadow effect happens.

Urban climate is not negligible due to the changing landscape. Urbanization promotes a considerable urban heat island effect in Singapore. The pattern of urban buildings and their distribution will affect the intensity of heat island effect, which will further affect temperature[4]. For example, compact high-rise building groups can be 3˚C-4˚C hotter than the light weight low-rise building groups[4]. Besides, the energy released from human sources like vehicles and air-conditioning, land use in terms of surface materials and coverage, and influence of the sea/land breeze contributes to the different intensity of heat island effect and the general urban microclimate. Considering factors above, downtown (high-rise building groups) can be 4.2˚C hotter than other areas in some extreme situations[4].

Geographic characteristics

Singapore is located in the South of Malaysia, around 1˚N above the equator. Singapore has 63 islands and 725.7 km2 land area in total. The topography of Singapore is generally flat, consisting of small hills, plain, and artificial lands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at elevation of 163.63 m. Due to the high degree of urbanization and huge land demand for fundamental facilities, Singapore has carried out a lot of land reclamation projects on the South and Northeast coasts, which has resulted in the area of Singapore Island increasing by 114 km2. The filled lands are primarily used for Airports, docks, and industry development. Although the area of sea reclamation in Singapore is similar to or even less than other countries which also conduct sea reclamation, it accounted for 15% of Singapore Island. This is an extremely high proportion comparing to other countries[5].

Biomes

Terrestrial
The emergence layer of a forest in Bukit Timah Natural Reserve seen through a canopy gap

Singapore is dominated by a typically tropical terrestrial rainforest biome. In history, Singapore is covered by mostly continuous rain forests which are abundant in large tall trees, lianas, and epiphytes. The upper level of the forests is mostly continuous canopy of dipterocarps. The understory has extremely limited light accessibility and is constrained in space by the litter from the flourishing canopy. The species composition shifts slightly along with the environment such as swamp and coastal area. The species in which more tolerant to persisting waterlogging will be slightly more abundant in swamp areas. Characters like stilt roots and pneumatophores happen partially in forests there. The species that adapt to low altitude areas can grow better in coastal areas[6]. Adinandra dumosa adapts to unfertilized soil therefore they dominate relatively dry regions. The biomes in Singapore were largely constrained by human activities like deforestation, sea reclamation, and agricultural development. Over the past 183 years, Singapore lost 95% natural habitats[7]. This promotes the emergence of secondary forests. Secondary forests largely emerged after the old farmland, rubber plantations, or fruit orchards were abandoned. Low and pioneer species dominate the place like Albizia falcataria andacacia farnesiana etc., but this does not mean the forests composition has changed overtime. Native species regrow and accumulate and will finally turn to be similar to original rainforests[6]. In order to preserve the natural landscapes, Singapore designated 24 nature reserves where people are able to find ancient rainforest or secondary forest.

Besides the dominated forest biome, grasslands are also present in low-lying regions in Singapore. The dry grasslands are well drained and full of non-lawn grass species. The wet grasslands are more similar to swamps, which has serious waterlogging issue. It has a significant admixture of sedges. low-growing weeds and shrubs are likely to be found between the spaces of the dominated grasses.

Small biomes happen in urban areas such as parks, building corners, and gardens. The biomes consist of multiple species that can either be native or exotic. Small organisms such as flies, ferns, and mosses accommodate here well.

Marine
Mangrove in Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve

Singapore also has complex tropical marine biomes. Mangrove is a highly productive shrub that grows in salty environments. It breaks the sea waves from exerting too much energy on the near shore areas. Therefore, a large scale of seagrass bed can be found if mangroves are present. Coral reef contains multiple layers and sub zones with different characteristics and shapes. Both mangroves and coral reefs provide shelters for multiple organisms and promote local biodiversity. However, they are also exposed to multiple risks such as shrinkage and coral bleach due to the threats from human activities[8] .

The intertidal zone is characterized by being exposed to daily tidal cycle. the area between the highest and the lowest tidemarks varies due to the time of exposure to seawater. The intertidal zone in Singapore includes rocky shores, sandy beaches, and sea grasses. Such transition and complex composition offer diverse ecological niches for local environment.

Singapore Walter-Lieth Diagram
Map of Singapore

Diversity

Biodiversity in Singapore

Singapore is home to a wide variety of plant and animal species, according to the National Parks Board of Singapore there are 390+ species of birds, and 2,100 native vascular plants, 1,500 of which are still being actively recorded in Singapore[9]. Marine diversity is also impressive, Singapore boasts a large amount of hermatypic coral making up about a third of the global total[10] . In addition to this plants such as the mangrove make up a significant amount of the population in Singapore, 55% of mangrove plants in Asia have been recorded in Singapore[11]. The threat to biodiversity is the rapid urbanisation taking place in the city-state of Singapore. Urban sprawl has left the country with only 100ha of primary rainforest, which is 0.16% of all land in Singapore[12].  Other threats include rising sea levels, water clarity issues, pollution, and alien species[11].

Endemism in Singapore

Singapore hosts two amphibian species specific to the region, the Subaraj’s Paddy Frog Micryletta subaraji and the Singapore Black Caecilian Ichthyophis singaporensis[13][14]. As well as two fish that can only survive in the region, the Glass Goby Gobiopterus birtwistlei and the Keli Bladefin Catfish Encheloclarias kelioides[15][16]. In addition to these, there are a number of crabs, including the Reticulated Swamp Crab Parathelphusa reticulata, and many unique insects and spiders such as a creeping water bug Naucoris minutus[17][18]. There are 11 endemic plant species recorded in Singapore 4 of which are now extinct, the Dendrobium laciniosum, Strychnos ridleyi and Neonauclea kranjiensis, and Riccardia latifrondoides[19].

Evolution's and Geography’s Impact on diversity

Impacts on diversity in relation to Singapore's geography and evolution include the effects of immense human impact, its small coastal country, and its rich conservation efforts. The latitudinal gradient of biodiversity states places closer to the equator in the zone deemed the tropics have a higher density of biodiversity, and Singapore is 1.3521 degrees north of the equator making it a strong candidate for the LDG. Singapore cuts the divide between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. It is an island that is closely surrounded by its neighbours of Malaysia and Indonesia, meaning ocean dispersal could be possible leading to changing biodiversity. Human impacts on Singaporian land are strong, within the last 150 years, Singapore's primary forest remains less than 0.2% of the area it once was. With such ecosystem changes comes a great deal of adaptation for species that call Singapore home. In 2013 a study was conducted to look at evolutionary impacts on the canopy tree Koompassia malaccensis in Singapore and found high allelic richness indicating the population adaptability[20]. In addition to human impacts on the physical land, it also serves as a port city bringing in many imports and with foreign goods comes foreign biodiversity. Despite the changes caused by humans many conservation efforts are underway, such as the Nature Conservation Masterplan (NCMP) which was launched in 2015[21].

Human influences

Singapore’s historical context heavily involves human influences, ultimately shaping the ecosystems in present day Singapore. From being covered almost entirely by rainforest in the early 1800s to major transformation into croplands in the mid-1900s, Singapore’s landscape is now almost entirely urban[22].

History of Human Influences

File:Origin of Singapore(name).png
Sang Nila Utama's Arrival in Singapore

The earliest record of Singapore’s history was in the third century of an ancient Chinese account, which was later known as Temasek (“Sea Town”) in the 1200s[23]. According to legend, Sang Nila Utama renamed the city to Singapura (“The Lion City”) after an alleged sighting of a lion on the island. For centuries after, Singapura thrived as a trading port, strategically located at the tip of the Malay Peninsula, where ships and vessels continuously passed by the Straits of Johor on their journeys. Early Singapore was covered almost entirely by primary forests, with smaller open habitats of coastal and mangrove habitats along the coastline of Singapore[22]. Historically, Singapore has never had endemic megafauna in comparable areas of the Malay Peninsula. This is likely attributed to the isolation of Singapore as an island from rising sea levels[22]. Human influence throughout this period of history was largely minimal, as Singapore's main economic activity was still trade. However, there may have been some impact on primary forests as natives would have obtained trading items from their local environment, including hunting and other forest products[22]. Even then, the small population of 1000 locals were unlikely to have caused major land use change in Singapore[24]).

Pineapple Plantation pictured in Singapore

Modern Singapore was then famously founded by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819, who represented the British Colony in searching for an optimal trading port that could simultaneously be a base for merchant fleets[23]. Singapore’s population steadily increased after Raffles began to build Singapore into one of the busiest trading ports in Asia, with immigrants arriving from surrounding regions. From a trading centre, Singapore began establishing cash crops as another form of economic growth. Major commercial crops grown in Singapore included pepper, gambier, rubber, and some tropical fruits and spices[25][26]. Gambier’s influence was especially strong, with heavy demand for gambier-sourced products coming from England and America[25]. One such example is Chinese businessman Seah Eu Chin, who had purchased a 13-kilometre stretch of land between River Valley and Bukit Timah for the sole purpose of gambier plantations[27]. Though gambier is a fast-growing crop, the ecological effects of such croplands were long-lasting. Large areas of forests were cleared to grow such commercial crops, but the soils gradually lost their nutritional properties and were not ideal for further growth[22]. The operations of cultivation stemmed from the Chinese, who wished for efficient returns on their crops[28]. When soils lost their nutrition, cultivators abandoned the land and restarted the process in neighbouring plots of virgin soils. Such large portions of forests being cleared, alongside their frequency, were then invaded by secondary forests and grasses, causing forest fragmentation and major land use change. Furthermore, crops like gambier required heavy use of firewood, leading to more forests being logged for plantation purposes[22][25]. This process of crop cultivation continued across the entirety of inland Singapore, reducing the abundance of primary forests in Singapore. Coconut, another major crop grown in Singapore during this period, occupied coastline forests and sandy beaches where coconut plantations had taken over 2,658 acres by 1849[29]. For the second half of the 1800s, other crops entered the agricultural landscape in Singapore, such as pineapples and tapioca, and were cultivated on lands previously cleared for gambier and new forest patches [22]. Other than terrestrial land clearance, mangrove forests were being logged for supplying firewood and other products, contributing to further land-use change.

Rubber Tapping in Singapore, 1914


In 1908, Henry Nicholas Ridley pioneered Malaya’s rubber industry within Singapore’s Botanical Gardens, which eventually became the main source for establishing new plantations[30] . During the World War I period, Singapore became Malaya’s principal trading port for rubber, with 51,200 tons of rubber being auctioned in Singapore’s market[31]. By 1935, a total of 22,500 hectares of rubber plantations were set up in Singapore, occupying nearly 40% of the land area [22]. The acceleration of such rubber plantations led to soil erosion on slopes, further degrading the ecological resilience of the land. Additionally, during the 1900s, mangrove forests were also affected by human influences. Prawn farming was one of the main reasons behind large-scale clearing of mangrove forests[22]. With much of the land cleared, Bukit Timah became one of the remaining forested areas untouched by the impact of agriculture[26].

Primary Forest in Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore

After the agricultural industry settled down, most of the cleared lands and forests made way for urbanisation and other industry purposes, which intensified post-World War II from the 1950s onwards[32]. Political history in Singapore shows a strong push for the small island to flourish as a modern urbanised trading port. When Singapore finally gained its independence in 1965, its population was considered to be almost entirely urban[33] . Urban areas hit 49% in 1999, nearly doubling from 27% in 1960, even faster than the rate of urbanisation in other metropolitan cities like Las Vegas[34]. The continuous land use changes in Singapore led to the island-state earning the title of most urbanised state in South-East Asia. However, such rapid urbanisation has cost significant changes in its land cover. The urban half of Singapore consisted of exotic fauna, with significant changes in soil conditions over multiple cycles of construction[22]. Primary forested areas completely devoid of land clearance and heavy human influence were Choa Chu Kang (Nee Soon) and Bukit Timah, consisting of native species such as dipterocarp forests that were typically seen in lowland forests in the Sunda region, legacy of Alfred Wallace[26]. Flora and fauna compositions have also been difficult to estimate, largely because rapid development across the country had removed significant forested areas which had potential for taxonomic identification and collection[22]. However, it is estimated that Singapore has lost at least 35% of plant species in the past two centuries[35].


The idea of conserving forest patches and recognition for their importance continuously fluctuated throughout the years. The Forest Ordinance legislation passed in 1908 legally mandated that without authorisation, no one was allowed to cut, collect or remove forest produce within 15 identified forest reserves[36]. This was initially questioned in 1925 by the colonial government, prior to Singapore’s independence, and ultimately led to the revocation of forest reserves in Singapore in 1936[37]. After much deliberation by people in power, the National Parks Act was enacted in 1990, intended to protect and preserve existing flora and fauna within identified park reserves[38]. Land use changes today are regulated by the Ministry of National Development, encompassing statutory boards including National Parks Board, National Environmental Agency, Urban Redevelopment Authority, and Housing & Development Board[39].

Future Impacts of Human Influence

Fragmentation at Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, Singapore

Today, Singapore’s population is at 5.92 million, reaching a high population density of 8058 people per square kilometre[40]. As Singapore’s population density continues to climb, the impacts of urbanisation remains to be one of the largest concerns for nature conservation. Though rates of urbanisation have slowed in Singapore, the urban heat island effect, coupled with global warming, will continue to influence urban climate and temperatures[41]. Furthermore, the primary forest fragments in Singapore are becoming increasingly isolated and highly disturbed, where researchers are starting to see signs of forest degradation and potential encroachment of secondary species into the primary forest area[26]. The impacts of human influences contribute to potential biodiversity loss due to such heavy disturbance to forest fragments and the introduction of exotic species to create Singapore’s “Garden City” narrative[41]. Bukit Timah’s primary forest, for example, is surrounded by non-native secondary forest regrown after the abandoned agricultural plantations, potentially threatening the diversity within Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and rendering it susceptible to invasive species[26].

Human-wildlife conflicts are also arising in recent years, with more sightings and interactions with species such as the wild boars, smooth-coated otters and long-tailed macaques. The increasing pressure on forest reserves and habitat degradation will only continue to encourage wildlife to encroach into human urban areas.

Natural soils in Singapore have also been heavily altered from their original properties, where only less than 1% of land has not been under any human influence[41]. Currently, an urban-rural soil gradient has been observed, with higher concentrations of heavy metals such as zinc, manganese, and lead in industrialised areas[42]. Alterations in soil ecology and composition in Singapore will persist, with previous impacts by the history of agriculture and development, and potential future urbanisation.

Singapore continues to face land constraints, with increasing need to provide residential areas for its population. Thus, human influence on Singapore’s ecology occurs mostly via land use change. Singapore had changed from being entirely covered with primary tropical rainforest, to an urban environment with intended green spaces and designated nature reserves. With impending issues such as sea level rise, Singapore eventually will face increasing pressure for its land, directly and indirectly affecting its ecology and biodiversity.

Conservation

Lee Kuan Yew, the first Prime Minister of Singapore


As a case study in conservation, Singapore comes across as quite an interesting case of paradox in term of its relation to the natural environment. As one of the world’s densely populated countries on a relatively small island nation (about 6 millions peoples on 719 km², or about 8,592 per km²[43], every moment of its growing existence deteriorates the environment, every national progress comes at the cost of its natural resources[44] . Synchronously, however, Singapore has also made sure that taking care of nature becomes an essential part of its national DNA[45], both by embracing its natural heritages and by ensuring the sense of belonging and the coexistence of Singapore-Nature future through state-led conservation resources and initiatives under the unified vision of “Singapore, Our City in Nature” [46].


A bird-eye-view of the Gardens By The Bay as one illustration of the intersectionality and co-existence of nature conservation and urban development in Singapore

The beginning of this national vision was quite humble, actually— it all started with a tree. A single tree planted by a man. One very important man for Singapore’s natural history organized the first tree planting campaign in 1963, which has kick-started the nation-wide reforestation effort ever since (such as the 2022 OneMillionTrees movement in an effort to plant one million more trees in Singapore by 2032[47]). His name was Lee Kuan Yew (1923-2015), and his official title was prime minister Lee Kuan Yew, the first prime minister of Singapore (1959-1990). It should be of no wonder, then, that no major restoration and conservation efforts in Singapore are without concurrent policy supports (such as the conceptual 2009 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), and the subsequent practical 2015 Nature Conservation Master Plan(NCMP) and institutional backings from the Singaporean government[45] with a centralized nation-wide mobilization[46] as well as a strong commitment to International environmental agreement such as the UN's Convention on Biological Diversity[48]. It also should be of no surprise how deeply entangled and inseparable the conversation and strategy on natural environment in Singapore are with discussion and literature on urban planning, politics and policy, as well as sustainable (economic) development, given the tight-knitted socio-geographical nature of the city-state of Singapore and the top-down centralized nature of the government in the environmental governance in Singapore[49].

Wildlife conservation

Sunda Pangolin, the only pangolin species native to Singapore

One manifestation of the spill-over of wildlife conservation is the illegal wildlife trade, which Singapore is known to be the major hub, both internationally and regionally within Southeast Asia, due to its geographical significance in shipping route and strong connectivity in the global networks of trade activities[50]. It is the effect of leakage, as discussed in context of conservation, in a sense that as conservations are put in place in some part of the world, the illegal wildlife trade makes its purchase elsewhere to satisfy the global networks of desire for, oftentimes, rare and ‘exotic’ wildlife— as an alive whole or as body part products, from small animal to massive mammals to marine megafauna.

Being one of the signatory countries to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and well-aware of the threats illegal wildlife trades taking place in the country posed to global biodiversity as well as the undermining ramification to contemporary conservation projects and practices everywhere, Singapore have several institutions and initiatives created to tackle this leakage problem as well as contributing to the conservation effort across multiple scales: nationally, regionally, as well as globally.

A close-up image of Sunda Pangolin's scale, highly sought after in the illegal wildlife trade

The Singapore Pangolin Working Group (SPWG)

Being the most trafficked animal in the world, the pangolins account for about 20% of all global illegal wildlife trade[51]. Endemic to Southeast Asia, the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) are excessively poached for their scales believed to have medicinal properties to practitioners and consumers of traditional medicines as well as their meat as rarity luxury food item. Since 2013, they have been listed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as ‘Critically Endangered’ (or as widely known as being on the “Red List”). In Singapore, the pangolins also face major threats from habitat loss as well as road-related mortality. Given the urban built environments practically replacing and connecting their fragmented natural habitats, there have been increasing numbers of human-pangolin encounters in highly-developed sites(such as residential areas and urban centres) and urban green spaces, including fetal encounters with vehicles on roadways[52].

Established in 2014, the Singapore Pangolin Working Group (SPWG)’s serves as the central national-level coordination and collaboration hub for the pangolin conservation efforts among different stakeholders in Singapore, public and private, for research, rescue and rehabilitation, policy making, conservation project and management plan, as well as raising the public awareness. For example, SPWG brings about the standardization of method and database (data collection and data sharing, for example) as well as furthering the understanding of the pangolin population in Singapore (e.g., their dietary preference and their potential role as pest control of ants and termites in Singapore) between research groups, government agencies, the public, and NGOs. In this way, research and conservation efforts have been observed to benefit from having a coordinated and centralized approach that can facilitate long-term planning and secure a large-scale funding for the nationwide multi-stakeholders pangolin conservation projects and initiatives in Singapore[52].

Diagram of shark fins, highly sought-after wildlife product in global trade as food items and medicine

Against illegal shark fin trade: DNA barcoding and AI-powered mobile app

As a commercially viable industry, shark fin trade is estimated to result in about 100 million sharks caught globally each year supplying the human demands for special occasion cuisine (shark fin soup) and traditional Chinese medicine, similar to the plight of the pangolins. The profitable shark fin trade brings about an inevitable anthropogenic-driven declining numbers of the shark populations with many entangled cascading effects for the marine ecosystem[53], whereby the majority of the catch was the unfortunate products of bycatch or the illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fisheries. As a result, shark trade is highly regulated by international trade and conservation bodies, only allowable for certain shark species listed on Appendix I or Appendix II species of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, the monitoring and enforcing aspects of the trade regulation prove extremely difficult due to the issue of identifying allowable species by the remaining shark carcass/body part, and even harder on dried shark fin which looks indistinguishable from one species to the next. Moreover, reliance on catch data and the recording of species composition of caught shark also proves challenging due to the issue of inaccuracy and misidentification[54].

DNA barcoding

In the context of Singapore, it is valued as the second-largest importer and re-exporter of shark fin trade in the world. For example, according to Wainwright et al.[54], more than 1,000 tonnes of shark products was imported into the country where 90% of the import stayed within the domestic market. It is therefore of consequential national-interest for Singapore, a signatory country to CITES and one of the major market for shark products, to develop and implement tools and techniques to increase the accuracy and effectiveness of its shark fin trade’s identification process. One method is to perform DNA analysis on shark products readily available to the consumer market by matching the collected DNA against the publicly available DNA sequences database such as GenBank to verify whether the shark product is in compliance with the CITES-listed international trade regulation. This is also known as a DNA barcoding technique, a widely used wildlife forensic technique in the investigation and protection of exotic pet trade and animal poaching. Due to its accuracy and high degree of certainty, it is observed to be a valuable resource in the conservation efforts (e.g., for establishing a sustainable catch quota) and the related law enforcement of endangered species such as shark for Singapore as a major transhipment hub of the shark fin global market[54].

FIn Finder app
Dried shark fins

Due to the post-hoc and time-consuming nature of the DNA analysis, Singapore recently, back in 2022, develops an artificial intelligence (AI)-powered mobile application, called Fin Finder, for real-time, rapid identification of shark species to accommodate an accurate and efficient visual identification for the customs inspection against illegal shark fin shipment. This tool is the result of a collaboration between environmental-based NGO the Conservation International, Singapore's main urban ecosystems government agency the National Parks Board (NParks), and technology developer Microsoft as a part of their global AI for Good initiative[55]. Fin FInder enables an accurate and quick identification process of shark species on an easy-to-use and widely available tool, a smart phone. The customs inspector only needs to take a picture of the fin and upload it on the Fin Finder app which the AI algorithm will match against a database of over 15,000 fins images to then identify the caught shark species. This allows not only on-site inspection, but also a chance to quickly flag and investigate suspicious wildlife shipments for further DNA barcoding. It is praised by CITES secretary general, Ivonne Higuero (2018-ongoing), as a welcoming and innovative conservation resource to “ensure that international trade in CITES-listed species remains legal, traceable, and sustainable”[56], putting a stop to and curtailing the widespread illegal shark fin trade. For Singapore, Fin Finder contributes innovatively to their national enforcement against illegal wildlife trade as well as building the country’s capability in wildlife conservation.


Biodiversity conservation

Wildlife protection is only one side of the conservation efforts in Singapore. Biodiversity conservation that looks at the bigger picture of habitats and ecosystems as well as the ecological integrity and connectedness among them are also the country’s priority[57]. The governmental agency NParks (the National Parks Board) was created in 1990 to take charge and make possible the national vision of “Singapore, Our City in Nature”. From their website, NPark’s mission statement is as followed: “To create the best living environment through excellence in nature conservation, greenery and recreation, and veterinary care, in partnership with the community”[58]. What this means is that almost all public green areas (natural environments and cityscape) in Singapore are managed by NParks. About 5% of them is under the legal protection as protected areas (PAs), classified as ‘Nature Reserves’. There are a total of four PAs: Bukit Timah Nature Reserve (163 hectares), Central Catchment Nature Reserve (3,043 hectares), Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve (131 hectares), and Labrador Nature Reserve (10 hectares)[59].

The location of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in Singapore

The Nee Soon Swamp Forest

Singapore road sign - Informatory - Except Nparks vehicles.svg

Of particular interest to us is the Nee Soon Swamp Forest in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore’s last primary freshwater swamp forest located in the remaining 0.2% of the primary forests left on Singapore Island. Generally, freshwater swamp forest can be characterized as forest that is subjected to flooding, permanently or periodically, with relatively mineral-rich freshwater and high sensitivity to external disturbances such as anthropogenic contamination[60].

A partial view of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, Singapore

One of the lesser known tropical forest formations, the Nee Soon Swamp Forest not only holds the national importance for its ecological services and as one of the country’s natural heritages, but is also considered to be the most important site for local biodiversity; for some species, it is the only remaining habitat for native aquatic flora and fauna. For one, it contains the highest percentage of threatened native freshwater fish species, as well as supporting the highest diversity of native freshwater organisms in the country[61]. The Nee Soon Swamp Forest is therefore a very crucial site for biodiversity conservation in Singapore, which NParks step up to this important task of preserving and protecting this ecosystem and the biodiversity locating within it. In 2013, researcher assessed that the overall status of native community remains healthy within the swamp forest[62]. Moreover, despite locating within the Central Catchment Nature Reserve which open for public recreational use and public access, the Nee Soon Swamp Forest is open to the public. Access to area, whether by researchers, educational groups, or individuals is strictly managed through permits by NParks.


As a part of Singapore’s PAs, the Nee Soon Swamp Forest is legally protected from development and habitat conversion for the foreseeable future, which theoretically should guard the native aquatic species and ecosystem against development pressure or anthropogenic activity[62]. However, researchers in 2018 found a rather high concentration of heavy metal such as lead, copper, and zinc in the swap catchment, due to the proximity of the military establishment and shooting range under the management of the Ministry of Defence[63] . Although the researchers noted that the observed high concentration of heavy metal were “currently not posing a threat to the swamp environment”[62], this odd glitch between government agencies when it comes to conservation effort and on-the-ground implementation raises an important question about the highly centralized approach of the environmental governance in Singapore.

Citizen conservation

One of many butterfly species found in Singapore

Taking inspiration from an article reflecting on the conservation stories of certain animal celebrities upon their species’ conservation effort[50], the question of the hour is this: along side all these visible success stories of Singapore’s state-led conservation planning and management, what remain concealed and invisible about the conservation stories in Singapore? Let’s take a look at their governance structure. One key detail about Singapore’s administrative structure of their environmental governance is the fact that all greens space managed by NParks is under the care of Minister for National Development which also serves as the authorities for the country’s land-use planning and economic development[44]. It is of no wonder, then, that the tension between the protection of nature and the growth for the nation’s prosperity, introduced since the first paragraph of this written piece, has always been an indisputable part of the Singapore conservation stories, with one particular story that comes to mind.

An aerial view of Tanah Merah County Club golf course, Singapore

Protest as conservation

Sometimes in the 1990, an internal development proposal for a golf course on the protected areas of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve was found out by members of local NGOs the Nature Society Singapore (NSS) and made known to the public. The rationale behind the proposal was documented as part of the government’s national policy, initiated by the Singapore Tourism Board, whereby the country was to be re-imagined as Asia’s golf vacation destination, an addition to the already existing fourteen golf courses[64]. It was even puzzling to some folks at the time, as the momentum on the story started to pick up, how come the very same governmental authorities appointed to take care of the nation’s environments is the same institutional agents who proposed the development plan. The NSS strongly opposed the plan on the group that it encroached upon the gazetted PAs and that there were other designated sites for golf course development elsewhere in the country. As they gathered “a groundswell of support” from the communities[64]—academic and civic, and community members nation-wide, the NSS chose to conduct its own Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) due to the lack of institutionalized practice of mandatory and publicly-engaged EIA for development project. Due to the persistent and unwavering oppositions and protests by civic groups and ordinary citizens alike, the government finally pulled the plug on the project in 1992, keeping and protecting the integrity of the nation’s protected areas from further fragmentation. As well, the government had also its development project planning and design by incorporating and institutionalizing public engagement into the consultation process, the choice of sites, mitigation measures applied and the final designs moving forward[64].

An example of community-based garden for butterfly biodiversity in Singapore

Everyday conservation of butterflies

Highlighting the role of citizen-led conservation in Singapore, we now turn to the grassroots, everyday conservation effort for insects, looking specifically at butterflies. In a 2020 commentary piece on the unevenness of conservation efforts in Singapore[65], there was a mention about the lesser known reality that half of the butterfly populations are locally extinct in the country against the backdrop of well-funded national conservation programs for large charismatic animals like orangutang at the Singapore Zoo. An observational research was conducted in 2017 looking specifically at the everyday-scale capacity-building for nurturing and supporting the biodiversity and conservation of butterflies in the urbanized cityscape of Singapore[66]. The paper recognizes the importance role of community-managed rooftop gardens in commercial and residential build environments, in preserving and protecting the presence and variety of local butterfly diversity in the absence of intact natural habitat and environment[66]. This case emphasizes the far-reaching potential and possibility for everyday reconciliation between urban development and biodiversity conservation with positive impacts for the local, often-overlook key contributor to the health and wellbeing of the ecosystem like the pollinator insect such as butterflies.

References

  1. ↑ Wikipedia contributors (2023). "Singapore". Wikipedia.
  2. ↑ "Our Ecosystems". National Parks of Singapore.
  3. ↑ "Climate of Singapore". Meteorological Service Singapore.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Mughal, M. O., Li, X., Yin, T., Martilli, A., Brousse, O., Dissegna, M. A., & Norford, L. K. (2019). "High‐Resolution, Multilayer Modeling of Singapore's Urban Climate Incorporating Local Climate Zones". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 124(14): 7764–7785.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ Zhang, J., Su, F., & Ding, Z. (2017). "Sea Reclamation Status of Countries around the South China Sea from 1975 to 2010". Sustainability. 9(6): 878.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Terrestrial Forest Ecosystem of Singapore". National Parks.
  7. ↑ Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S., & Ng, P. K. L. (2003 July). "Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore". Nature. 424(6947): 420–423. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ "Coastal and Marine Ecosystem of Singapore". National Parks.
  9. ↑ "Wildlife in Singapore". national parks.
  10. ↑ Chou, Too, Tay, Phang (2012). "Coral Reefs in Singapore: Past, Present and Future". The Asian Conference on Sustainability, Energy & the Environment: 431–436.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Singapore-Biodiversity Facts". Convention on Biological Diversity.
  12. ↑ Wiederkehr, F., Wilkinson, C. L., Zeng, Y., Yeo, D. C. J., Ewers, R. M., & O’Gorman, E. J. "Urbanisation affects ecosystem functioning more than structure in tropical streams". Biological Conservation. 249 – via Elsevier Science Direct.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Lim, W. H., Li, T. J., & Cai, Y (2015). "A NEW LOCALITY IN SINGAPORE FOR THE CAECILIAN, ICHTHYOPHIS PAUCISULCUS" (PDF). NATURE IN SINGAPORE. 8: 73–75.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ Ananthanarayanan, S., Law, I. T., Law, I. S., Rasu, S., Abraham, R. K., & Onn, C. K. (2022). "Morphology, phylogeny, and species delimitation of Micryletta (Anura: Microhylidae) reveals a new species from Singapore". Vertebrate Zoology. 72: 457–467.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ↑ "mangrove fishes: gobies (gobiidae)". Guide to the Mangrover of Singapore.
  16. ↑ "Fish species thought extinct discovered in small Singapore swamp, many miles from where it was last seen". Shoal. 2023, May 19. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ "Parathelphusa reticulata Ng". National Parks - Flora&Fauna Web. 1990.
  18. ↑ Polhemus, D. A., & Polhemus, J. T. (2013). "GUIDE TO THE AQUATIC HETEROPTERA OF SINGAPORE AND PENINSULAR MALAYSIA. XI. INFRAORDER NEPOMORPHA— FAMILIES NAUCORIDAE AND APHELOCHEIRIDAE" (PDF). THE RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY: 665–686.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Lindsay, S., Ho, B. C., Chong, K. Y., Turner, I. M., Ibrahim, A., Alonso-García, M., Ang, W. F., Ashton, P. S., Athen, P., Atkins, S., Ibrahim, B., Beentje, H. J., Boo, C. M., Boyce, P. C., Bramley, G. L. C., Buerki, S., Callmander, M. W., Chantanaorrapint, S., Cheek, M., … Er, K. B. H. (2022). "Flora of Singapore: Checklist and bibliography". The Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore. 74: 3–860.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Noreen, A. M., & Webb, E. L. (2013). "High genetic diversity in a potentially vulnerable tropical tree species despite extreme habitat loss". PLOS ONE. 8(12).CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ "Nature Conservation Masterplan". National Parks. 2015.
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 Chorlett, Richard T. (1992 July). "The Ecological Transformation of Singapore, 1819-1990". Journal of Biogeography. 19: 411–420 – via JSTOR. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "About Singapore". Visiting Singapore.
  24. ↑ Rahim, Lily Zubaidah (2009). Singapore in the Malay World: Building and Breaching Regional Bridges. London: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-134-01397-5.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Pwee, Timothy (2021, Apr 1). "From Gambier to Pepper: Plantation Agriculture in Singapore". Biblioasia. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Shawn Lum, Ngo Kang Min (2021). "Lessons in ecology and conservation from a tropical forest fragment in Singapore". Biological Conservation. 254 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  27. ↑ Siang, Song Ong (1923). One hundred years’ history of the Chinese in Singapore. London: John Murray. p. 20. ISBN 978-981-12-1763-0.
  28. ↑ Jackson, James C. (1965 July). "Chinese Agricultural Pioneering in Singapore and Johore 1800-1917". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 38: 77–105 – via JSTOR. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ↑ Brooke, Gilbert E. (1921). "Botanic Gardens and economic notes". The Commerce of Singapore. 2: 63–79.
  30. ↑ "1888: Ridley and the Malayan Rubber Industry (from 1896)". Singapore Botanic Gardens.
  31. ↑ Huff, W.G. (1993). "The Development of the Rubber Market in Pre-World War II Singapore". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 24, No. 2: 285–306 – via JSTOR.
  32. ↑ Neville, Warwick (1993). "The impact of economic development on land functions in Singapore". Geoforum. 24, No. 2: 143–163 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  33. ↑ T.G. McGee and Charles Greenberg (1992). "The Emergence of Extended Metropolitan Regions in ASEAN: Towards the Year 2000". ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 9, No. 1: 22–44 – via JSTOR.
  34. ↑ Wong, T. C., & Yap, L. H. (2004). Four Decades of Transformation: Land Use in Singapore, 1960-2000. Marshall Cavendish Intl. ISBN 978-9812102706.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ↑ Nadiah P. Kristensen, Wei Wei Seah, Kwek Yan Chong, Yi Shuen Yeoh, Tak Fung, Laura M. Berman, Hui Zhen Tan, Ryan A. Chisholm (2020). "Extinction rate of discovered and undiscovered plants in Singapore". Conservation Biology. 34, Issue 5: 1229–1240.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ↑ Leng, Ang Seow (2021). "Nature Conservation in Singapore". biblioasia.
  37. ↑ "Singapore forests". The Singapore Free Press. 1926, April 28. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ "NATIONAL PARKS ACT 1990". Singapore Statutes Online.
  39. ↑ "Ministry of National Development". Ministry of National Development Singapore.
  40. ↑ "Population and Population Structure of Singapore". Department of Statistics Singapore.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Puay Yok Tan, Abdul Rahim bin Abdul Hamid (2014). "Urban ecological research in Singapore and its relevance to the advancement of urban ecology and sustainability". Landscape and Urban Planning. 125: 271–289 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  42. ↑ Zhou C.Y., Wong M.K., Koh L.L., Wee Y.C. (1997). "Soil lead and other metal levels in industrial, residential and nature reserve areas in Singapore". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 44 (1-3): 605–615.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ↑ "Population of Singapore". Department of Statistics Singapore.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Giok-Ling Ooi (2011). "The Role of the State in Nature Conservation in Singapore". An International Journal. 15: 455–460.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Beatley, Timothy (2016). Handbook of Biophilic City Planning and Design. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 978-1-61091-621-9.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Singapore, Our City in Nature". National Parks of Singapore.
  47. ↑ "60 years of greening". TreesSG.
  48. ↑ "Singapore - Biodiversity Facts". Convention on Biological Diversity.
  49. ↑ Heejin, Han (2017). "Singapore, a Garden City: Authoritarian Environmentalism in a Developmental State". The Journal of Environment & Development. 26(1): 3–24.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Graham, Perks, Huggan, Samuel (2022). "The Gospel According to Ah Meng: Conservation, Celebrity, and the Singapore Story". Society & Animals.
  51. ↑ "Sunda Pangolins". Singapore Pangolin Working Group.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Helen C. Nash, Paige B. Lee, Norman T-L Lim, Sonja Luz, Chenny Li, Yi Fei Chung, Annette Olsson, Anbarasi Boopal, Bee Choo Ng Strange, Madhu Rao, (2020). "Chapter 26 - The Sunda pangolin in Singapore: a multi-stakeholder approach to research and conservation". In Biodiversity of World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes, Pangolins: 411–425 – via Academic Press.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ↑ "ASIA'S FIRST AI-BASED MOBILE APP LAUNCHED FOR SHARK AND RAY FIN IDENTIFICATION TO COMBAT ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE". Asian Leisure Business.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Wainwright, B.J., Ip, Y.C.A., Neo, M.L.; et al. (2018). "DNA barcoding of traded shark fins, meat and mobulid gill plates in Singapore uncovers numerous threatened species". Conservation Genetics. 19: 1393–1399. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ↑ "New app aims to take a bite out of illegal shark fin trade". Conservation International.
  56. ↑ "AI helps to fight the illegal trade in shark and ray fins". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
  57. ↑ Chin, See-Chung (July 2008). "Biodiversity conservation in Singapore". BGjournal. Vol. 5: 11–14 – via JSTOR.
  58. ↑ "Mission and History". National Parks of SIngapore.
  59. ↑ "Nature Areas & Nature Reserves". National Parks of Singapore.
  60. ↑ E. Clews, R.T. Corlett, J.K.I. Ho, D.E. Kim, C.Y. Koh, S.Y. Liong, R. Meier, A. Memory, S.J. Ramchunder, T.M. Sin, H.J.M.P. Siow, Y. Sun, H.H. Tan, S.Y. Tan, H.T.W. Tan, M.T.Y. Theng, R.J. Wasson, D.C.J. Yeo & A.D. Ziegler (2018). "The biological, ecological and conservation significance of freshwater swamp forest in Singapore" (PDF). Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 70 (Suppl. 1): 9–31.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ↑ G.W.H. Davison, Y. Cai, T.J. Li & W.H. Lim (2018). "Integrated research, conservation and management of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest, Singapore: hydrology and biodiversity" (PDF). Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 70 (Suppl. 1): 1–7.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Jonathan K.I. Ho, Sorain J. Ramchunder, Andrew Memory, Heok Hui Tan, Darren C.J. Yeo (2018). "Native and introduced fish community structure in a freshwater swamp forest: Implications for conservation and management". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. Volume29, Issue1: 47–58 – via Wiley.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ↑ C.T.T. Nguyen, R.J. Wasson & A.D. Ziegler (2018). "The hydro-geomorphic status of Nee Soon freshwater swamp forest catchment of Singapore". Gardens’ Bulletin Singapore 70 (Suppl. 1): 33–48.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Maria Francesch-Huidobro (2008). Governance, Politics and the Environment: A Singapore Study. ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. pp. CH5. ISBN 9789812308337.
  65. ↑ "Commentary: Cute otters and pangolins get saved but are ugly animals a lost conservation cause?". ChannelNewsAsia.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 James Wei Wang, Choon Hock Poh, Chloe Yi Ting Tan, Vivien Naomi Lee, Anuj Jain, Edward L. Webb (2017). "Building biodiversity: drivers of bird and butterfly diversity on tropical urban roof gardens". Ecosphere. Volume 8, Issue 9: 1–22.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)


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