Course:GEOS303/2022/Vietnam

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By Billy, Matthew, Michael, Chris & Xiaohan

Vietnamese Flag

Vietnam

Location of Vietnam
Location of Vietnam within Asia

Vietnam is the easternmost country on the mainland of Southeast Asia. Vietnam is located between latitude 8 and 24 degrees North and longitude 102 and 110 degrees east. The country covers an area of 331,210 square kilometers with a coastline of 3,444 kilometers long[1]. The country is associated with a high degree of diversity in terms of biomes and ecoregions due to its exceptionally long continental and coastal borders. Two of Vietnam's representative ecoregions are tropical moist forests and tropical and subtropical dry forests, with the former found all across the country and the latter discovered mainly in the mid-south. Additionally, the Indochina mangroves form significant mangrove ecoregions in the coastal part of Southern Vietnam[2], highlighting another aspect of the country's noteworthy ecoregion variation.  

Biogeography

Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam

Biomes

Vietnam has a rainforest biome and a dry forest biome, where the climate is hot, moist, and rainy year-round in the former and dry for the latter. This biome is associated with considerable geographical challenges due to anthropogenic influence, such as deforestation[3]. As an outcome, in plenty of areas with the occurrence of dry forests, they tend to display a relatively scattered or fragmented distribution, often over extensive parts of Vietnamese territories. When arriving at the regions closer to the tropics, on the other hand, the biogeographical diversity of local ecosystems increases with more unified physical landscapes of rainforests. Furthermore, in this biome, there are a mainstream portion and tributaries of the Mekong River, the third-longest river in Asia with a total length of more than 4000 kilometres[4]. Therefore, promoting the establishment of rich marine ecosystems that enhance the complexities of Vietnam's geographical systems and their biotic and abiotic interactions.

Moist forests

An example of a wet forest in Vietnam is the Annam Mountains Wet Forest, which is located in central and southern Vietnam. The climate of the wet forests of the Annam ranges is characterized by a high seasonal rainfall of between 1500 and 2500 mm, with ten times as much rain in summer as in winter[5]. The climate and geography of the region, where temperatures are above 0 °C year-round and are more pronounced at higher elevations, partially similar to Vietnam's neighbour Laos on its west[6], create unique environments for many unique plants and animals. The region's rich closed forests and broad-leaved evergreen vegetation are home to mammals such as Asian elephants, tigers, Duke langur monkeys, gibbons and abundant bird providers[6].

Dry forests

Da Lat - Viet Nam.jpg

The Middle Indochina Dry Forest ecoregion is another distinctive biome in Vietnam. It is located in the northeast of Vietnam, which has tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests biome[6]. Rainfall ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 mm, with more rainfall in summer followed by a dry period of about six months starting in November. The temperature is also very seasonal, reaching the highest temperature in spring and decreasing with the increase of altitude[7]. The different climate conditions of the moist forest create a deciduous tree cover dominated by diptera, which provides habitat for 167 mammals, including wild dogs and clouded leopards[6].

General climate

Vietnam’s climate and weather varies throughout the seasons, depending on the latitude and other external factors, each region differs from one place to another. The average annual temperature is said to be greater in the plains than in the mountains, where in south Vietnam ranges from between 21 and 35 °C (69.8 and 95.0 °F) over the year but in the middle to upper regions of Vietnam the temperature are lower between the 15 and 33 °C (59.0 and 91.4 °F)[8]. Vietnam also has a high rates of precipitation in rainfall, the average amount ranges from 1500 mm to 2000 mm during the monsoon season alone, this leads to floods, with extratropical factors being the main driving forces of climatological and geographical manifestations of precipitation variation[9].

Diversity

Overall conditions

Biodiversity in Vietnam is enormously rich, with more than 13,200 terrestrial plant species and approximately 10,000 animal species calling the country home, in addition to over three thousand species inhabiting in aquatic ecosystems of its wetland regions[10]. In particular, Vietnam's amazingly diverse plant ecology engenders its abundantly robust forestry as a noteworthy sector of the country's biodiversity, with forests of various types, including timber forest, bamboo forest, mixed forest, mangrove forest, rocky mountain forest, as well as different planted forests[3]. Together, these distinct but interrelated systems consist of an indispensable part of natural diversity in Vietnam. On the other hand, Vietnam is home to numerous endangered wild animals, such as the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey distributed in the Red River Delta and the gray-shanked douc langur distributed in the Central Highlands[11]. The considerably broad distribution of plentiful endangered animals contributes to biodiversity, despite placing the conservation of these species at an incrementally dangerous position.      

Ninh Binh, Trang An Limestone Peaks
In addition to Ha Long Bay, many other places in Northern Vietnam, such as Ninh Binh, are gifted with limestone landscapes

Historical influences

Ha Long Bay
Ha Long Bay is the result of geological factors, influencing ecological factors

Historical biogeography has resulted in some of the most significant landforms and ecological species in Vietnam. This country is one of the most ecologically diverse countries on Earth. Therefore, discussions about its geography as an entirety would be rather limitless. The Halong Bay, one of the most well-known sceneries in the country, for instance, is a representative mark of its history. It Includes approximately 2000 islets, most of which are limestone islands[12]. The limestone in Halong Bay has experienced 500 million years of formation under different conditions and environments. Under the influence of the tropical humid climate, the karst evolution of this bay lasted 20 million years. The geographic diversity of these environments creates biodiversity through the separation, formation, and temporally continuous impacts of the Sunda Plate[13], the geological plate on which Vietnam is located. As a result, this place, although only a tiny fraction of Vietnam's territory, is home to plenty of endemic plants and animals.

Human influences

Overall conditions

Coffee plants in Vietnam
In Vietnam, land and its resources often suffer from degradation due to coffee plantations

The biodiversity of Vietnam has been greatly influenced by human activity in recent history. The US-Vietnam War created great disturbances to the natural setting, resulting in a loss of biodiversity in Vietnam until the war ended 1975 [14]. Since 1986, Vietnam became the world’s third largest rice exporter and became the second largest global coffee exporter in 2000[14]. Vietnam’s rapid growth in agriculture on a global scale and ushered the country into a period of economic success, but has resulted in a loss of forest cover. Between 1994 and 2005, there was widespread deforestation due to the area in which agriculture takes place[14]. To this day, conversion to agriculture is the main cause of deforestation in Vietnam.

Vietnam is one of the countries with the richest biodiversity in the world, and it is also a country where biodiversity is threatened and needs to be protected as a priority. In 1994, Vietnam joined the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)[15]. Since then, in order to fulfill the obligations under the Convention, while still insufficient in terms of their extent, the Vietnamese government has invested a lot of capital and manpower. However, the process of industrialization and urbanization has and is having a negative impact on the protection of biodiversity in Vietnam.

Anthropogenic challenges

Currently, Vietnam's biodiversity is facing many challenges influenced by humans. The increasing population and expanding consumer demand have led to the over-exploitation of biological resources, and the rapid economic and social development has also changed the natural landscape. In addition, the transformation of land use patterns and the continuous increase of construction area have resulted in the fragmentation of natural habitats and the gradual shrinking of the living environment of many wild animals and plants[16].

Deforestation and land use change

Trees are being cut down in Vietnam
An example of deforestation in Vietnam

The conversion of forest land and swampy land into agricultural land, commercial crop cultivation land or aquaculture farms, urbanization and infrastructure development processes are one of the main reasons for the loss or destruction of ecosystems and natural habitats in Vietnam[17], leading to the decline of biodiversity. In addition, the conversion of degraded forests into rubber planting areas has led to a significant reduction in the area of ​​dipterocarp forests in the West Plains of Vietnam and natural forests in many parts of the country. By the 2010s, more than 1000 square kilometres of dipterocarp forests have been destroyed in the Central Highlands[18].

The per capita area of ​​agricultural production in Vietnam is just over 0.1 hectares, but more and more land is being reclaimed to serve urbanization, industrial park construction and other purposes. The continual expansions of particularly notable metro areas such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City has given rise to worsening ecological status quo in rural locations. As a result, the average annual agricultural production area of Vietnam as a whole has decreased in an incremental manner, concurrently putting farmers under greater pressure to improve productivity, resulting in the abuse of pesticides and fertilizers, resulting in land and water pollution, and the decline of ecosystems and biodiversity[19].

Fisheries

Boats in Vietnam for fishing
Traditional fishing methodologies remain widely in use in Vietnam, posing environmental and ecological challenges

At present, the high-density fish farming mode in the aquatic environment is also one of the reasons for environmental pollution and affecting biodiversity, particularly by the increasing number of hydroelectric and other types of dams. To be specific, the reservoir project of the hydropower plant has reduced the natural forest area and hindered the migration routes of fish. The reservoir works of many hydropower plants do not operate according to standard procedures, causing human and economic losses and affecting downstream ecosystems. At the same time, Vietnam's accelerated infrastructure construction has also negatively affected the decline of biodiversity[20].

Threats

Introduction and Overview

Generally, the threats to biodiversity in Vietnam are closely intertwined with anthropogenic influences from the previous section. As one of the regions with the richest biological and plant diversity on earth, the country's biodiversity has been affected by multiple factors since the Anthropocene. For example, there are climate change impacts caused by human activities, hunting effects, urban expansion effects, and so on. The accumulation of these factors throughout history has led to the continuous negative impact of Vietnam's ecosystems and the continuous threat of its biodiversity. The historical record and the observed situation today has reflected the biodiversity threats that Vietnam may experience in the future.

Climatic change

Climate change is believed to be caused by human activities, and Vietnam's ecosystem is one of the most vulnerable and changeable to climate change. According to Vietnam's temperature data, the temperature has shown a growth rate of ~0.2°C/decade over the past 40 years[21]. In the future, as the global average temperature increases by 1.5°C, 2°C or more, Vietnam will face more severe climate change impacts. According to a study by Costate in Tam Dao National Park in northern Vietnam, the habitat of tropical butterfly communities will be degraded and forest-associated species will be reduced due to the threat of rising temperatures due to climate change, resulting in a decline in the abundance and richness of varies species, such as butterfly communities[22].

Deforestation

In addition, Viet Nam's biodiversity is affected by land conversion and human expansion in forested areas. According to records, in the past 20 years, about 2.8 million hectares of natural forests in Vietnam have been cut down and converted for commercial purposes, turning them into land for agriculture, orchards and residential land. According to the report, 21 percent of mammal species, 6.5 percent of birds, 19 percent of reptiles, 24 percent of amphibians, 38 percent of fish and 2.5 percent of vascular plants are threatened by deforestation[23]. In the future, although the Vietnamese government is taking some forest protection measures, the demand due to illegal logging and population growth will persist. The future will still see large swathes of primary forest being converted to other uses, leading to fragmentation of animal habitats and isolation of plants and animals, resulting in limited gene pools, resulting in biodiversity loss[24].

Illegal Hunting

The threat of illegal wildlife hunting in Vietnam is severe for the mammals and birds that live in the forests of Southeast Asia. There is studies that show that in some areas, illegal hunting is a greater threat to wildlife than forest degradation. The study compared Malaysian Borneo, a deforested area, with Vietnam's Annam Mountains, a protected ecological area but affected by illegal hunting. The results showed that the declining wildlife population in the Annam Mountains was more dramatic than in Borneo. [25]In recent years, however, the Vietnamese government is issuing decrees to crack down on illegal hunting and wildlife markets. For example, in 2020 Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyen Xuan Phuc signed a decree banning wildlife imports and closing illegal wildlife markets.[26] In addition, the Judicial Committee of the Supreme People's Court of Vietnam has approved a master plan for biodiversity conservation up to 2020 with a target of 2030 to strengthen protection mechanisms for endangered wildlife, set up forest rangers, strengthen law-making and other measures.[27] In general, the future of the Vietnamese government will be optimistic in preventing illegal hunting and combating wildlife markets. However, considering other factors, the threat of illegal hunting to Vietnam's wildlife and biodiversity will still be serious in the future. Due to its unique geography, Vietnam's borders with multiple countries are conducive to international trade with multiple countries. Its border areas are often used by traffickers as locations for wildlife products to achieve smuggling and transnational transit.[28] And with the growing demand for wildlife products from surrounding countries and the involvement of some transnational organized crime groups (e.g. TOC), etc., wildlife hunting in Vietnam will remain serious in the future, which will remain a major threat to Vietnam's biodiversity and ecosystem.

Conservation

Overview

Conservation efforts in Vietnam are highly multidimensional. By its nature, conservation and its strategies require examining and addressing every component of the natural system due to the inherent interconnectedness between each of them. Nonetheless, one of the most notable facets of conservation is the maintenance of the incredibly rich biodiversity in Vietnam, mitigating the increasing extent of ecological degradation in the country and reducing the rate of species loss.

Biodiversity (Michael)

Anthropogenic practices and management decisions play a vital role in the direction of the development of biodiversity, frequently by affecting abiotic factors. For instance, issues surrounding anthropocentric overexploitation of local water mismanagement have deteriorated the stability of species richness and evenness by removing endangered species and inducing the forced migration of species, respectively. Vietnam’s systematic plan titled Biodiversity Conservation Plan 2021-2030 and Vision 2050 attempts to address these issues. Its research covers the entire territory of Vietnam. Its research objects include nature reserves, biodiversity protection corridors, biodiversity protection facilities, areas with high biodiversity, important ecological landscapes such as wetlands, etc[29]. Policymakers require that the content of the planning procedures needs to assess the impact of natural and socio-economic conditions on the biodiversity of terrestrial and marine ecoregions, as well as assess the status of biodiversity in these ecoregions. For particular examples, the plan aims at assessing the status of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and upwelling, and produce beneficial outputs based on scientific cartographic modelling processes involving the biotic and abiotic environments across the country[29].

Water (Michael)

Furthermore, the climate crisis also urges a solution representing the optimization of water use. As a consequence, Vietnam plans to complete the construction and maintenance of a national water resource monitoring network and early warning systems for floods, droughts, seawater intrusion, and sea level rise by 2030. Within the framework of the plan, Vietnam will simultaneously launch a monitoring system for coordinated operation of all reservoirs in 11 river basins and a monitoring system for water resource extraction and utilization, and discharge of wastewater into water sources[29].

PRCF Vietnam (Matthew)

Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey
Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey, a special species of protected interest in Vietnam

In order to save endangered species and their karst forest habitats, the People Resources and Conservation Foundation Vietnam was founded in 2004[30]. They collaborate with regional groups and governing bodies to advance local conservation efforts and to assist the preservation and restoration of imperiled species and their ecosystems[30]. The focus of their work is on the northern mountain provinces of Bac Kan and Tuyen Quang, a biodiverse area that is home to several species that are threatened with extinction, including the Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey, Francois Langur, Pangolin, and Civets[30]. Through the majority of their conservation activity, they have assisted the establishment of community-based organizations to support biodiversity protection and the improvement of local livelihoods[30]. Degradation of the habitat possesses a severe threat to the long-term existence of endangered species[30]. PRCF Vietnam uses natural and aided natural regeneration techniques to carry out and promote the restoration of forest habitat[30]. All of their habitat restoration sites undergo photo-monitoring to evaluate plant changes over time and the effects of activities in the initially damaged environment[30]. The main goal is to rehabilitate forest regions so that the endangered Eastern black-crested gibbon population can develop there[30].

Limitations (Michael)

Even though substantial efforts have been proposed to optimize the conditions of conservation in Vietnam across different organizational scales, their degree of genuine implementation is facing alarming limitations in a varied manner. A macro-perspective of such challenges is closely connected to the one-party political characteristic of the country. Solely governed by the Communist Party of Vietnam, diverse opinions that are constructive to the progress of ecosystem management are frequently oppressed and concealed where they contradict the government agenda, revealing an aspect of the nature of Vietnam's dictatorial institutions[31]. On the other hand, a smaller perspective of conservation limitations in Vietnam involves the lack of accurate environmental knowledge available to the public due to a lack of such focusses in the national curriculum, resulting in the distorted impression of prioritizing the maximization of economic greed at all cost over ecocentric approaches of conservation common in financially disadvantaged populations such as farmers[32], setting back the effectiveness of the would-be conservation frameworks.

Save Vietnam's Wildlife (Chris)

Pu Mat National Park, one of the areas in Vietnam that is protected by SVW.

Save Vietnam’s Wildlife (SVW) is a national non-profit organization that is dedicated to create effective solutions to conserve Vietnamese wildlife[33]. Established in 2014 by the Vietnam Union of Science and Technology Association (VUSTA), SVW was granted an activity license for science and technology by the Ministry of Science and Technology shortly after[33]. The mission statement of SVW is to “Stop the extinction and champion the recovery of threatened species in Vietnam”[33]. To do this, they have identified five main areas of focus: site protection, education outreach, wildlife rescue, conservation breeding, and advocacy.

Site Protection

In 2018, SVW launched its own law enforcement unit in collaboration with Pu Mat National Park[33]. This anti-poaching team began with seven members, but has since grown into the current 16 member team that covers around 950km2. SVW’s anti-poaching unit also uses SMART CyberTracker and SMART planning for all of their activities. From 2018 to 2022, the anti-poaching unit is responsible catching 865 human violations, confiscating and removing 15,488 traps and 114 guns, and destroying 994 illegal hunting groups[33]. SVW also uses the anti-poaching team to inspire collaboration with the Vietnamese government, holding 12 conferences regarding Pu Mat National Park to date.

Education Outreach

SVW has developed five levels of education outreach to offset the educational gap of environmental knowledge communication: awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills, and participation[33]. Of these five, participation is the most important level to achieve. To do this, SVW has built and developed the infrastructure to educate people of all ages on conservation. They have done this by implementing the following: class-based, school-based, and forest-based programs for students ages 5-17, training programs and workshops for government officials, law enforcement officers, university students, local partners and sponsors, community-based programs, and behaviour change programs[33]. Since the implementation of these education outreach programs, SVW has been able to achieve the following: 11,133 children educated, 2,500 government officials trained, and delivered 1,000,000 education materials[33].

Wildlife Rescue

SVW’s wildlife rescue program aims to reduce the risk of trade-confiscated animals being released back into the wild without any health checks done prior. Government agencies would also release animals into habitats in which they are not native to, creating an additional risk to the animals released and to the overall habitat. To date, SVW has directly rescued 2,189 wildlife animals of over 45 species and has been able to release about 60% of rescued animals back into the wild[33].

Conservation Breeding

Chinese Pangolin, one of the many endangered species in Vietnam.

Due to the devastating effects of illegal wildlife trading in Vietnam, SVW has put an extreme emphasis on conservation breeding programs for species facing extinction. The goal of conservation breeding programs is to prevent the extinction of high priority species by producing captive bred animals that can be used to re-establish and support the recovery of wild populations[33]. To achieve this, SVW has pioneered the development of strategies and action plans for the conservation breeding of Owston’s Civet and Chinese Pangolins in Vietnam[33]. In doing this, SVW has developed strategies that can be applied to many other endangered species in the area.

Advocacy

SVW is a Vietnamese non-government organization that has the backing of the Vietnamese government. As a result of this, SVW has been able to provide over 20 national or technical workshops to review wildlife laws and government decrees[33]. SVW has also led efforts to build profiles for all small carnivores and pangolins in Vietnam and has also led several campaigns demanding stricter punishments for illegal poaching and trading of wildlife[33].

Forest Protection in the Central Highlands of Vietnam (Billy)

This project is located at Kon Ka Kinh National park (420 km²)[34] and within the park lies the Kon Chu Rang Nature Reserve (159 km²)[34] that is homed to several endangered species such as gray-shanked douc langurs (Pygathrix cinerea) and Northern Yellow-cheeked Crested Gibbon (Nomascus annamensis)[34]. The purpose of this project is to secure endangered animals and other wildlife species within the park from long term harm, through means of collecting biological data which provides advice to authorities on protection strategies, and network with other interest groups such as government institutions, NGOs, and the local population. The project was established in 2010 by Dr. Ha Thang Long in order to protect natural wildlife from illegal logging, hunting, and agricultural expansion.[34] Effects in conservation is by creating a 10 year management plan that is currently being implemented through primarily improving training of the forest guard, Environmental education of all ages, surveying and taking large censuses every ten years in monitoring the douc langurs and gibbons population since 1997, and through educating future conservationist that will contribute towards understanding the Kon Ka Kinh protected areas. The goal of Dr. Ha Thang Long is to preserve and to improve the protection of the park and the nature for the future.

USAID Biodiversity Conservation (Xiaohan)

April 27, 2021 - The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has launched The Biodiversity Conservation project in HANOI, Vietnam, to help Vietnam address the loss of natural forest ecosystems and wildlife diversity due to agricultural conversion, illegal hunting, and wildlife trade.[35]

The project will be implemented with WWF as the implementer and $38,000,000 in program funding for the period 2020-2025. Protect the ecological integrity of forests and provide more safe havens for wildlife by strengthening forest and wildlife crime enforcement and establishing community guardianship of wildlife. Support the formation of environmentally friendly commodity chains by promoting conservation-oriented businesses in forest communities and Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC), increasing incomes of the population, and intervening in illegal hunting and ecologically harmful crimes.[35]

It is expected that at the end of the project, 7,000 people will have increased their current income and employment in conservation enterprises, 700,000 hectares of special purpose protected forests will be better managed, and 250 villages will show a 50% reduction in wildlife hunting and consumption through (SBCC) activities.[35]

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[36]

  1. ↑ Sawe, Benjamin (April 25, 2017). "Ecological Regions Of Vietnam". World Atlas. Retrieved September 30, 2022.
  2. ↑ Tran, Thao (2009). "Landscapes of Mangrove Forests and Littoral Dynamics in the South Viêt-Nam". Journal of Coastal Conservation. 13(2/3): 65–75 – via JSTOR.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 de Jong, Will; Do, Dinh Sam; Trieu, Van Hung (January 1, 2006). "Chapter 2 - Forests and Forestry in Vietnam". Forest Rehabilitation in Vietnam: Histories, realities and future: pp.11-32 – via JSTOR.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  4. ↑ Owen, Lewis (July 26, 1999). "Mekong River". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 30, 2022.
  5. ↑ "Northern Annamites rain forests". Wikipedia. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Sawe, Benjamin (April 25, 2017). "Ecological Regions Of Laos". World Atlas. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
  7. ↑ "Northern Indochina subtropical moist forests". Wikipedia. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
  8. ↑ World, Bank (October 6, 2020). "Current Climate - Climatology". Vietnam - Climatology - Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Retrieved October 28, 2022.
  9. ↑ Tuan, Bui Minh (2019). "Extratropical Forcing of Submonthly Variations of Rainfall in Vietnam". Journal of Climate. 32(8): 2329–2348 – via JSTOR.
  10. ↑ "Viet Nam - Main Details". Convention on Biological Diversity. October 5, 2012. Retrieved November 1, 2022.
  11. ↑ "Conserving the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey in Vietnam". Fauna & Flora International. February 23, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2022.
  12. ↑ Trần, Thạnh; Waltham, Tony (2001). "The outstanding value of the geology of Ha Long Bay". Advances in Natural Sciences (Publishing house for science and technology. Hanoi.). 2: 89–98 – via ResearchGate.
  13. ↑ Harrison, Terry; Krigbaum, John; Manser, Jessica; Lehman, Shawn; Fleagle, John (2006). Primate Biogeography: Progress and Prospects. Springer. pp. 331–372. ISBN 9780387317106.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Yohe, Laurel R.; Flanders, Jonathan; Duc, Hoang Minh; Vu, Long; Phung, Thinh Ba; Nguyen, Quang Hao; Reddy, Sushma (Fall 2022). "Unveiling the Impact of Human Influence on Species Distribution in Vietnam: A Case Study Using Babblers (Aves: Timaliidae)". Tropical Conservation Science. 7: 586–596 – via Sage Journals.
  15. ↑ Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (2019). The Sixth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Hanoi: Convention on Biological Diversity. pp. 1–37. line feed character in |title= at position 48 (help)
  16. ↑ Jolly, Carole L (1994). "Four Theories of Population Change and the Environment". Population and Environment. 16(1): 61–90 – via JSTOR.
  17. ↑ Forbes, Dean (1996). "Urbanization, Migration, and Vietnam's Spatial Structure". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 11(1): 24–51 – via JSTOR.
  18. ↑ Aso, Michitake (2012). "Profits or People? Rubber plantations and everyday technology in rural Indochina". Modern Asian Studies. 46(1): 19–45 – via JSTOR.
  19. ↑ Forbes, Dean (2001). "Socio-Economic Change and the Planning of Hanoi". Built Environment. 27(2): 68–84 – via JSTOR.
  20. ↑ AES, 2015 (2019). "Effects that Hydroelectric Dams have on Fish Populations in Vietnam". Medium. Retrieved October 16, 2022.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ White, Scott (3.8.2022). "Climate change in Vietnam: impacts and adaptation". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ Bonebrake, Timothy; Pickett, Evan; Tsang, Toby; Yun Tak, Chung; Quang Vu, Manh; Van Vu, Lien (October,2016). "Warming threat compounds habitat degradation impacts on a tropical butterfly community in Vietnam". Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ↑ Anh, Phan (November 3, 2021). "Human activity most serious threat to Vietnam biodiversity: report".
  24. ↑ "How does deforestation affect biodiversity?". The Royal Society.
  25. ↑ Chandraprakash, Nanditha (9 December 2019). "Illegal hunting a greater threat to wildlife than forest degradation". Mongabay.
  26. ↑ Nguyen, Mai (24 July , 2020). "BREAKING: Vietnam bans wildlife imports, closes illegal wildlife markets as part of global crackdown". Human Society International. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Hoa, Vu Thuy (6 Novemebr, 2020). "Overview of Vietnam's law on wildlife conservation and protection". Vietnam Law & legal forum. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ↑ Luong, Hai Thanh (5 August , 2021). "Why is Vietnam Still Considered a Hot-spot Location in the Illegal Wildlife Trade?". IAOS. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Thuaire, B; Allanic, Y; Hoang Viet, A; Le Khac, Q; Luu Hong, T; Nguyen The, C; Nguyen Thi, T (2021). "Assessing the biodiversity in Viet Nam – Analysis of the impacts from the economic sectors" (PDF). BIODEV 2030 – via WWF-Viet Nam, Ha Noi. line feed character in |title= at position 41 (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 "People Resources and Conservation Foundation". Retrieved 27 Nov. 2022. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  31. ↑ O’Rourke, Dara; Sikor, Thomas O. (1996). "Economic and Environmental Dynamics of Reform in Vietnam". Asian Survey. 36(6): 601–617 – via JSTOR.
  32. ↑ Gannon, Tracey; Kieu, Kinh; Singer, Jane (2016). "Education for sustainable development in Vietnam: lessons learned from teacher education". International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education. 17: 853–874 – via ResearchGate.
  33. ↑ 33.00 33.01 33.02 33.03 33.04 33.05 33.06 33.07 33.08 33.09 33.10 33.11 33.12 "Save Vietnam's Wildlife". Save Vietnam's Wildlife. 2022.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 "Forest Protection in Central Highlands of Vietnam".
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 USAID. "USAID BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION" (PDF).
  36. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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