Course:GEOS303/2022/Costa Rica

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Geography & Climate Overview

Map of Costa Rica.

Costa Rica is part of the Central American land bridge [1]. It’s bordered to the north by Nicaragua, to the south by Panama, to the east by the Caribbean Sea and to the west by the North Pacific Ocean. A mountain range cuts the country nearly in half, with the eastern side being referred to as the Caribbean Slope and the west side known as the Pacific slope.  Elevational gradients due to mountainous landscapes, along with being bordered by two oceans creates diverse climate characteristics across the country’s landscape. Generally, the country is considered tropical as its latitude extends between approximately 8 and 11° N of the equator and mean annual temperatures (MAT) are above 24 °C on both the Caribbean (MAT of 26 °C) and Pacific coasts (MAT of 27.6 °C).  Additionally, the Intertropical Convergence Zone influences precipitation within the country contributing to precipitation seasonality on both slopes which exceeds annual temperature seasonality in several regions, including in the capital city of San José [2].

Biomes

The main biomes found in Costa Rica are wet broadleaf forests, dry broadleaf forests, mangroves, and the montane grasslands & shrubland biome [1]. The distribution of the first three of these biomes across Costa Rica is shown in the biome map on the right. The distribution of the montane grasslands & shrubland biome is not indicated on the map as it predominately exists on the higher altitudes of mountains [3].

Wet Broadleaf Forests

Main biomes and ecoregions in Costa Rica.

The tropical and subtropical wet broadleaf forest biome (also referred to as the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome) covers just over 14% of all of earth’s terrestrial space [4]. Further, the tropical and subtropical wet broadleaf forest biome is a prominent biome in tropical regions, and it covers 55% of all land area in Central America [5]. Notable ecoregions found in the tropical and subtropical wet broadleaf forest biome include Central Americain Atlantic moist forests, Choco-Darien moist forests, Costa Rican seasonal moist forests, Isthmia-Atlantic moist forests, Isthmia-Pacific moist forests, Peten-Veracruz moist forests in lowland areas, and Central American[5]. This biome type can be subdivided into two more specific types: tropical wet broadleaf forests, and sub-tropical wet broadleaf forests.

For both subtypes, necessary climatic conditions must include the region receiving adequate rainfall, generally recognized as over 2000 mm per year, as well as the region maintaining a sufficiently consistent warm annual temperature[6].  Biophysical conditions of this biome are seen through the physical characteristics and composition of these forests. Specifically, this biome is characterized by its exhibition of five distinct forest layers: an overstory canopy with emergent crowns, a medium layer of canopy, a lower canopy, the shrub level, and the understory[6]. Another notable characterization are the prevailing tree species that comprise this biome: evergreen and semi-evergreen deciduous trees[6].

Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests

Globally, tropical dry broadleaf forests are located within 10 - 25 degrees of latitude North and South of the equator[7]. Its ecoregions include the Central American dry forests, Chiapas Depression dry forests, and the Panamanian dry forests[5]. This biome and its respective ecoregions occupy a relatively small portion of Costa Rica’s landscape. It can be found in the northwestern region of the country, and extends down to some of the Pacific coastline[5]. Tropical dry broadleaf forests in the tropics exist primarily in lowland areas, and can also be found in premontane regions[5]. They can be categorized by their prolonged seasonal aridity and subsequent intense wet season. For this reason, tropical dry broadleaf forests typically experience greater seasonal fluctuation of precipitation than a tropical rainforest, which has more consistent climate and weather patterns throughout the year[7]. Due to its geographic location and composition, including changes in elevation and partial proximity to the coast, this biome can be identified as either tropical (warmest) or subtropical (less warm) since temperatures vary.

Generally, tropical dry broadleaf forests’ structure can be classified into two levels: a high canopy and an understory. The former hosts many tall deciduous trees, and the latter includes non-deciduous and shade-tolerant species such as evergreens[5].However, as precipitation is a highly limiting factor for plant growth in this biome, the structure of these forests is dependent on both the overall amount and seasonality of rainfall it receives. In areas with higher annual precipitation and relatively short dry seasons, a larger abundance of evergreen trees will be present, whereas areas with lower annual rainfall and longer dry seasons will have a smaller and sparser canopy with more deciduous taxa [7].

Mangroves

Mangroves are a coastal wetland biome at the interface of terrestrial, estuarine, and near-shore marine environments[8]. In Costa Rica, mangroves exist in two ecoregions, the Southern Mesoamerican Pacific Mangroves and the Mesoamerican Gulf-Caribbean mangroves. This biome covers just over 400 square kilometers, with 99% of this area being distributed across the country’s Pacific coast[9].  Hydraulic forces induced by waves, soil salinity, as well as oxygen and nutrient availability are all biophysical factors influencing vegetation distribution and structure within Costa Rican mangrove biomes[10].  Soil salinity is primarily influenced by precipitation seasonality as increased evapotranspiration during dry months leads to increased saline concentrations in soils[11].  In Costa Rica, about half of the mangroves are located on each side of the Gulf of Nicoy, with mangroves located north of the gulf, on average, receiving highly seasonal precipitation between 1500 and 2000 mm annually while mangroves south of the gulf, on average, receive between 2500 and 4000 mm annually with minimal seasonality. Accordingly, compared to mangroves south of the gulf, those to the north are less biodiverse and productive and generally host a greater number of plant species with high saline tolerance, slow growth rates, and seasonal growth patterns. These differences in vegetation also influence the availability of habitats and food resources for insect and animals, thus contributing to limiting the distribution of these species within mangroves on either side of the gulf.

Montane Grasslands & Shrubland

The tropical montane grasslands and shrublands in Costa Rica are located in the “Isthmian Páramos”[12]. The ecoregion found in the Isthmian Páramos is known as the Talamancan Montane Forest. Páramos translates in English to alpine tundra or moor [3]. It is found in cooler areas and higher altitudes of the tropical mountains[12]. The orographic uplift that occurs in this biome due to the mountain ranges results in an annual rainfall of 1000 to 2000 mm. Temperature in this region also ranges depending on the elevation. Specifically, it ranges from 11.0°C mean annual temperature at 3,065 m elevation up to the coolest of about 6.5°C. at 3,670 m. This creates biophysical limits for species to live in this region, especially in the peaks of the mountains where the process of freeze-thaw weathering takes place. Freeze-thaw weathering is when the temperature drops to freezing at night and then warms up again during the day. This results in poor soil environments and harsh conditions for plants to survive in[12]. The dominant species in this environment is the oak tree that can sustain and adapt to these climatic conditions. Over 30 lakes in this region that were formed through erosion and glacial deposition from repeated glaciation that took place during the late Quaternary also currently provide habitat for some cold-tolerant species of phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, and chrysophytes[12].

Diversity

Despite accounting for less than 0.05% of the earth's land mass, Costa Rica is home to approximately 4% of the world's biodiversity[13]. Over 90,000 species have been identified in the country, including 66,946 species of insects, 11,451 species of plants[14], 238 species of mammals[15], 120 species of bats[16] and 877 species of birds[17]. Of these species, about 1.3% are endemic, with most endemic species tracing their origins to wet forests[14] .  Additionally, the rate of endemicity varies significantly across taxonomic groups; only about 0.7% of bird species are endemic while this rises to 10% for plants and 25% for amphibians.

  • Megasoma elephas, a species of beetle photographed in Limon, Costa Rica.

    Megasoma elephas, a species of beetle photographed in Limon, Costa Rica.

  • Flower of the plant species Etlingera elatior photographed in the Esquinas Rainforest Lodge, Costa Rica.

    Flower of the plant species Etlingera elatior photographed in the Esquinas Rainforest Lodge, Costa Rica.

  • Nasua narica, a species of mammal photographed in Rancho Naturalista, Costa Rica.

    Nasua narica, a species of mammal photographed in Rancho Naturalista, Costa Rica.

  • Glossophaga soricina, a species of bat photographed in La Casona Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica.

    Glossophaga soricina, a species of bat photographed in La Casona Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica.

  • Panterpe insignis, a species of hummingbird photographed in Monteverde Cloud Forest Biological Preserve, Costa Rica.

    Panterpe insignis, a species of hummingbird photographed in Monteverde Cloud Forest Biological Preserve, Costa Rica.

Biogeographic Factors Influencing Biodiversity

Sobralia decora, a species of orchid found in Costa Rica.

A range of factors have been suggested as explanations for Costa Rica’s high biodiversity, including its geographic location as both intercontinental and interoceanic, allowing for a range of terrestrial and marine climates and habitats (e.g. rainforests, mangroves, grasslands, and dry forests) that support the country’s diverse array of species[18]. Moreover, the uplift of the Cordillera Volcánica and Cordillera de Talamanca mountains that delineate the country into Caribbean and Pacific slopes, influence the country’s biodiversity with the mountains representing a significant source of vicariance since distinctive climates and habitats exist on each of the slopes[17].  Accordingly, species on each side of the mountain have been reproductively isolated from each other for many years resulting in the evolution of observably distinct Pacific and Caribbean populations of terrestrial snakes, beetles, frogs, and salamanders[19].  High dispersal and migration rates associated with Costa Rica’s location within the Central American land bridge connecting North and South America have also been suggested as a factor influencing the country’s high biodiversity [20] [17].  This is supported by studies of Orchidaceae, the most diverse plant family in Costa Rica, which identified a connection between the closure of the Central American land bridge 25 million years ago and increased net diversification rates of several genera of Orchidaceae within Costa Rica, including Laeliinae, Oncidiinae, Maxillariinae, and Pleurothallidinae[20].

Biotic Interactions Influencing Biodiversity

Several patterns of biotic interactions, including bacteria-stinkbug[21], fig-pollinator wasp[22], and hummingbird-flower mutualisms [23], have been suggested as contributing to Costa Rica's high biodiversity. In the latter example, researchers identified possible mutualistic coevolution as a factor influencing the high regional biodiversity of hummingbird-flower communities in a subtropical rainforest of the Caribbean slope [23].  More specifically, the researchers observed alignment between breeding seasons of three hummingbird subcommunities and the high to peak abundance period of flowers regularly visited by each of the subcommunities.  They posit that such an alignment may have been selected for in flower communities in response to competition for pollinators and hummingbirds’ increased demand for nectar during breeding seasons.  

Human influences

Humans have played a significant role in the shaping of the ecology in Costa Rica with the type and scale of human influences on the country's land differing significantly before colonization when Indigenous land management prevailed [24] and after colonial contact when the Spainards forcibly seized control of the country [25].

Pre-Colonial Contact

A controlled burn, a land management practice that was used by Indigenous peoples in Costa Rica pre-contact to clear land for agricultural activities.

In a pre-colonial time frame, notable human influences on ecology in Costa Rica largely stemmed from the first practices of agriculture and early stages of population growth [24]. Indigenous land stewardship is a significant part of Costa Rican history, and their actions were among the first to shape the lands. However it is important to note that available information and research online regarding early Indigenous practices in Costa Rica seems to be quite limited. By the sixteenth century, an estimated 400,000 Indigenous people resided in what is today known as Costa Rica[24]. Early Indigenous groups between 8000 and 4000 B.C. experimented with selective crop domestication to provide for their initial settlements. Between 4000 and 1000 B.C. this smaller scale food production gradually turned into a wider spread farming approach. Although this allowed for ameliorated and more efficient food production, it encouraged more stationary living patterns, which consequently increased the inhabitants’ needs for accessible lands so that farming areas could be alternated between to avoid soil nutrient depletion. Between 800 A.D. to 1500 A.D., more intensive farming practices led to increased deforestation and the use of fertilizers. An example of this has been proven by the extraction and analysis of a sediment core in 1997 from a lake in southern Costa Rica, Laguna Zoncho[26]. Various traces of charcoal and pollen materials present in the core sample provided sufficient evidence that the lake and surrounding area had been subject to human influence for over 3,000 years. Patterns of the trace materials indicated that anthropogenic influences during that time frame included population growth and surges in forest clearing events, such as forest burning. The forest surrounding Laguna Zoncho was eventually able to recover and replenish when inhabitants of the area halted their forest clearing efforts, which was likely due to colonial invasions eliminating these early inhabitant populations.

Post-Colonial Contact

Just like other places in South America, Costa Rica was colonized by Spain in 1540[25]. In the early stages of colonization, the resources available for extraction were below the colonizers' expectations. However, In the 16th century, the Spanish also established permanent settlements in the interior region of Costa Rica to facilitate intensive resource production and extraction in the country. Spain's resource extraction efforts during this time relied heavily on the exploitation of Indigenous peoples' labour; however by the 17th much of the Indigenous population, and their traditional practices of land stewardship were gone due to famine, disease, and murder at the hands of the Spanairds[27]. By the1800s, the Spanish population in Costa Rica had significantly expanded, and the country was exporting cocoa, livestock, tobacco and timber. Resource extraction played a significant role in establishing Costa Rica's economy as dependent on land use change [28], thus bringing about significant damage to local ecosystems through unprecedented rates of deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The intensive agriculture production coincided with a great amount of pesticide use in the area, resulting in negative impacts to soil health from the accumulation of chemicals in the soil over time.

A now protected mangrove swamp in Costa Rica's Manuel Antonio Park.

The mangrove tree is considered some of the most interesting plants in the world as they are the only vascular plant species that can live in fresh water, salt water and on-land habitats[29]. Mangroves are also very rare as they only exist in 1% of tropical and subtropical forests around the world. Research has identified that mangroves provide significant ecosystem services and suggests that our understanding of most mangrove species is still quite limited. During the 16th century, the Spanish removed much of the mangroves in Costa Rica as part of their agriculturally-driven land clearing efforts. As the Spaniards looked to gain naval power in the 17th century, the removal of Mangroves from the landscape intensified as the water-resistant qualities and hardness of mangrove wood made it the perfect material for shipbuilding. After gaining its independence in the 18th century, Costa Rica continued to exploit mangrove forests for economic gain until 1990, when their management focus for these regions shifted to conservation. While the over 400 years of exploitation of mangroves resulted in significant deforestation and the immense loss of biodiversity throughout mangrove biomes, the intrinsic resiliency of mangrove species suggests some hope for ongoing conservation efforts.

Threats

As an increasingly populated, product-exporting, and tourist-popular destination, Costa Rica faces diverse threats to its environment and in particular, the high biodiversity that it is known for[30]. These threats include deforestation and habitat fragmentation due to substantial land use change [30] [31], climate change[32], and pressures on wildlife due to the expansion of illegal wildlife hunting and trade within the country[33].

Land Use Change
Map displaying land cover (left) and major highway routes (right) of Costa Rica
An ariel view of a Costa Rican landscape that has experienced some fragmentation due to oil palm plantations.

Major land use change in Costa Rica can be traced back to early days of immigration to the country in the late 1940s[34]. The major historical and ongoing drivers of land use change in the country include significant demands for agricultural production, notably, exotic fruits, as well as the development of urban areas. Land use change, as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanization, has been directly correlated with a host of negative environmental impacts, including decreased levels of overall biomass, species abundance, biotic integrity, and ecosystem extents[35]. One of the challenges to remedying the effects of land use change is Costa Rica's increasing population, which will continue to pressure the conversion and cultivation of land in ways which hinder biodiversity [30].

Deforestation is considered to be Costa Rica’s most pressing land use change issue [30]. Demonstrating this is the fact that within the past two decades alone, tree cover has been reduced by 261 kilo hectares in Costa Rica [36]. Deforestation is not only an environmental issue, but a social one as well. During the 1960s and 1970s, compared to global standards, Costa Rica was experiencing very high population growth rates as well as deforestation rates [37]. This posed, and continues to pose significant threats to a multitude of environmental factors. Furthermore, deforestation can be understood as a gateway facilitating a series of further ecologically harmful effects, including biodiversity loss, changes in species gene inheritance, reduced watershed utility, increased erosion and air pollution, and decreases in carbon uptake, which in turn, may accelerate the rate of climate change [37].

Often accompanied by deforestation and land use change, fragmentation poses another threat to Costa Rica’s biodiversity. Forest fragmentation is the division of an existing contiguous forest body into smaller isolated forest blocks [31]. Notable drivers of forest fragmentation in Costa Rica include urban sprawl and the growing practice of producing monoculture products for exportation, including palm oil [38]. In many cases, fragmentation has significant negative impacts on wildlife habitat in addition to forest structure and health, further contributing to decreases in biodiversity [31]. Associated losses in biodiversity as a result of fragmentation are not random, they are the product of a species' ability to survive, adapt, or move out of a fragmented landscape [39]. As forests become increasingly fragmented, it becomes exceedingly difficult for species, especially those with limited abilities to migrate, to thrive. The consequences of this can be recognized in the great number of species which are added to the "Critically Endangered" classification on the IUCN Red List each year[40].

Climate Change

Climate change represents a serious threat to the biodiversity of tropical forests[32]. Although the tropics are warming slower than the rest of the world, they will experience extreme heat conditions and precipitation extremes and given the narrow physiological tolerances of tropical species, such climatic changes will likely also be associated with mass migration and extinction events.

In one study, researchers modelling possible climate change scenarios for montane forests in Costa Rica, found that increasing mean annual temperatures will be more pronounced at higher elevations compared to lower ones and that highlands of the Pacific slope will experience more warming compared to highlands of the Caribbean slope[41]. These findings are particularly concerning in terms of biodiversity since the migration abilities of species living at high elevations are limited and many of Costa Rica's endemic species reside on mountain tops[42]. and are endemic to only one slope[19].

A Leatherback turtle on a beach in Costa Rica.

Several studies have also investigated current and projected impacts of climate change on specific species in Costa Rica. For example, one study found that projected changes in mean annual temperature and precipitation in Costa Rica may result in a 29-76% decline in ​hatching success of the Leatherback turtle between 2001 and 2100, which could lead to the recruitment rate of the turtles becoming too low to maintain the population[43]. Bird species’ abundance in Costa Rica are also expected to decline as a result of projections of increased rainfall as very heavy rainfall has been associated with decreased rates of foraging, and reproductive behaviours in many tropical bird species [44]. Finally, there is a high diversity of rove beetles that thrive in the cold and wet climate of the montane forests. These beetles contribute to the high biodiversity of this region and are a rare example where species richness increases with elevation[45]. However, drier and warmer conditions due to climate change will likely cause the extinction of many of these beetle species given their inability to migrate upwards.  Considered collectively, these studies of climate change impacts on various species help demonstrate how serious a threat climate change poses to Costa Rica’s overall biodiversity.

Hunting and Wildlife Trade
A Jaguar standing in grasslands.

Wildlife populations have declined significantly in Costa Rica due to excessive hunting and trade[33]. This biodiversity loss is resulting in negative effects on the ecosystem, as well as posing particular threats to vulnerable wildlife populations. A critical concern associated with hunting and population decline due to wildlife trade includes the loss of the keystone species. A keystone species is categorized as such due to their critical contributions to maintaining the health of their respective ecosystems. In Costa Rica, jaguars (Panthera onca) are a tertiary predator which help regulate and foster stability of tropical forests[46]. Despite the key role jaguars play in the ecosystem, poaching in Costa Rica remains a persistent issue even though the hunting of jaguars is illegal. According to one study based in Costa Rica, the majority of jaguar hunting occurred outside of protected areas, suggesting the need for stricter conservation regimes[47]. There is also a small prevalence of hunting done by locals for subsistence purposes, however, this hasn't been found to cause significant declines in their population [47].

Conservation

Costa Rica is globally recognized as a leader in conservation with many diverse projects taking place across the country at both national and local scales [48]. Some interesting examples of diverse conservation work happening in Costa Rica includes agrotourism [49], agroforestry[50], payments for environmental services[51], commitments to carbon neutrality[52], and protected areas [53].

Agrotourism Operations in Mastatal Village

Tourists visiting a coffee farm in Costa Rica.

Agrotourism is loosely defined as the combination of agricultural operations, such as farms and ranches, with tourism activities, including harvesting fruit [54], sightseeing and local shopping [49].  Mastatal Village is a rural community in the San José Province of Costa Rica with a population of under 200 people [49]. The village hosts 4 agrotourism operations with two organic farms (Villas Mastatal [55] and Finca Siempre Verde [56]), a cocoa farm (Finca La Iguana Chocolate farm), and a permaculture farm (Rancho Mastatal[57]) offering lodging for tourists alongside a mix of educational, nature, and cultural activities. In a research study, surveyed community members commonly cited economic pressures induced by falling market prices for agricultural goods and increased climate variability negatively effecting crop production as rationales for the development of agrotourism operations in their village. Community members also identified a range of social benefits associated with the operations, including increased employment (particularly among women), increased retention of youth within the village, and intercultural knowledge exchange with visitors.  In terms of conservation, over half of those surveyed identified a noticeable increase in local flora and fauna in the years after the establishment of agrotourism in the community. These observations align with expected improvements to soil health, habitat viability, and biodiversity when farmers transition from conventional to agroecological practices.  In Mastatal, tourism revenues have been key in supporting transitions to, and continued use of, these more sustainable practices in 3 of the 4 agrotourism operations. This exemplifies that just like the social advantages provided by the operations, the environmental benefits are highly dependent on tourist visitors and their spending. In 2016, the village’s operations collectively hosted over 2,750 guests [49]. This high visitor count to such a remote village is likely heavily influenced by its location on a road to a popular National park, Manuel Antonio, along with its close proximity to a main tourist entry point in San José. Thus, the success of Mastatal’s agrotourism operations, exemplifies the significant role location plays in influencing the outcomes of local conservation projects.

Agroforestry

Deforestation of tropical forests for agricultural land has caused a significant loss in the extent of the global carbon sink[58]. Agroforestry is a form of land use wherein trees and shrubs are purposefully incorporated into agricultural land. It has gained substantial attention and uptake as it allows for continued agricultural production while providing a host of environmental benefits including increasing Earth's carbon sink, and providing extra nutrients for crop production via the addition of organic matter from litter. Additionally, in Costa Rica specifically, coffee agroforestry has been introduced to improve the connectivity of the tropical forest landscape[59].

A coffee plantation with shade trees in Costa Rica.

La Amistad Biosphere Reserve is located in southern Costa Rica[50]. The reserve has a great abundance of different flora and fauna. There are many communities located within the reserve area's buffer zone. Therefore, Conservation International, McDonald’s, Clemson University and Texas A&M University have created the AMISCONDE initiative. The initiative is used to advance conservation and sustainable economic development within the buffer zone to help meet objectives of long-term conservation in the reserve area. The initiation of coffee agroforestry in 13 coffee plantations within the reserve buffer zone is one significant part of the AMISCONDE initiative. In these regions, the implementation of agroforestry has provided numerous environmental benefits such as providing additional habitat for migrating birds, reduced need for pesticide use, and increased soil fertility.  Additionally, the use of shade trees in these agroforestry systems contributes to regulating soil and ambient temperature extremes, thus helping to safeguard the coffee crop during weather that would typically result in some level of yield reduction.  The introduction of agroforestry practices has also had positive social outcomes as it has resulted in increased economic gain and associated improvements in overall wellbeing for many of the smallholders residing in the reserve’s buffer zone.

Payments for Environmental Services

Payment for environmental service (PES) programs allow landowners to receive compensation in exchange for implementing sustainable initiatives on their property that provide some ecological service[51]. A payment for ecosystem service (PES) program was launched in Costa Rica in 1997 by the Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO), a public institution governed by a Board of Directors with representatives from both the public and private sectors[60]. Funding sources for Costa Rica’s PES program have shifted over time, however the program is currently primarily funded by Costa Rica's climate taxes[51]. Costa Rica, under Forestry Law Nº 7575, defines environmental services into four categories: curbing emissions, preserving biodiversity, protecting water, and creating or maintaining aesthetic natural landscapes[61]. The PES program has resulted in 1.3 million hectares being under PES contracts and the participation of 18,000 families between 1997 and 2019[51]. Indigenous communities have also been sought out specifically to participate in the program in efforts to recognize and further encourage their involvement in stewarding Costa Rica’s forests.  As of 2019, 19 Indigenous communities had participated in 303 projects through the program.  

Overall, the program seems to be quite successful in providing positive social outcomes to social communities through providing direct economic empowerment, increased welfare and improved quality of life for landowners[51].  Additionally, in some cases, compensation from the program has been used to help with projects that benefit entire communities, including the repair and construction of school and medical centres. One significant critique of the PES program in terms of the social outcomes it provides is that it is unequally accessible to landowners, with large landowners accessing it rather easily while many poor, rural smallholders face particularly high barriers to participation[62].  Thus, there seems to be room for improvement in terms of how the program is administered and what projects are prioritized in order to maximize the program's social outcomes.  Additionally, while the UN claims that Costa Rica’s PES program has significantly benefited the country’s biodiversity protection, reforestation, and global carbon sequestration [51], several academic sources have argued that the environmental benefits of the program may be overstated [63][64].  These sources assert that the program largely provides compensation to people who are already participating in sustainable practices, thus contributing limited additional benefits to forest conservation, reforestation, and biodiversity compared to those that would exist if the PES program didn’t operate.  The prioritization of  certain types of PES projects is suggested as an opportunity for the program to provide greater additionality, however the possible impacts of such prioritization on the social outcomes of the program are not thoroughly discussed[64].

Carbon Neutrality by 2050

Climate change poses serious threats to biodiversity in Costa Rica[43][44][45] and thus, efforts to mitigate climate change can be understood as key to protecting biodiversity. As part of their efforts to tackle climate change, Costa Rica is leading the way at becoming the first 100% carbon neutral nation in the world with aims to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050[52]. The Government of Costa Rica created the National Decarbonization Plan 2018-2050, the plan includes actions that will allow for Costa Rica’s economic development model to be transformed to bioeconomy, green growth and enhance the well-being of the citizens. One of the actions is making public transit like buses and trains and also taxis, electric. Another, is providing finance or insurance plans for people interested in purchasing zero-emissions vehicles which would greatly reduce or remove all gas vehicles in the country. They also plan to improve the development of buildings, for example, by 2030, 100% of the new buildings will be designed and built with low-emission, resilience systems and technologies under bioclimatic parameters. Finally, the restoration and protection of mangroves, wetlands, peatlands and soils are considered as an action to be completed by 2050.

An update from the Government of Costa Rica in 2021 reported that they had begun making progress towards some of their early targets [65]. For example, they transitioned 62% of government issued vehicles to electric vehicles and stated that a complete transition was on track for completion by 2022. Additionally, as of 2019, Costa Rica’s electricity production is 95% from renewable sources, more specifically from hydroelectric power, which they hope to push to 100% by 2030 [66]. Another current project they are working on is the creation of a 25 km urban riverside walkway to serve as a biological corridor while encouraging citizens to bike and walk more[67]. A major strategy for the success of the Decarbonization Plan is education and strengthening people's sense of connection to nature since this has been identified as a key step in driving the behavioural change needed to reach sustainability targets, such as increased use of public transit. However, some Costa Ricans are not yet willing to make a switch to public transit or electric cars given the loss of inconvenience and possible high cost of electric vehicles even with government subsidies. Thus, convincing all citizens within major cities in Costa Rica to purchase electric vehicles or switch to public transit may be quite challenging. Overall, the Government of Costa Rica's Decarbonization Plan has seen some implementation successes thus far and further achievement of emission reduction along with eventual elimination will not only benefit Costa Rican people and wildlife, by reducing local air pollution and contributing towards climate mitigation, but may also inspire other countries around the world to adopt radical changes to help mitigate climate change and indirectly conserve biodiversity.

Protected Areas

One of the most prominent methods of conservation seen in Costa Rica is the use of protected areas to secure and safeguard bodies of the environment from industrial use[53]. 25% of the country has been reserved as protected areas, as seen through the 28 national parks, 58 wildlife refuges, 32 protected zones, 15 wetland areas/mangroves, 11 forest reserves, 8 biological reserves and 12 other conservation regions present in Costa Rica. Although it can be challenging to assess the true effectiveness of protected areas, a significant way that protected areas have aided Costa Rica’s conservation efforts is through the reduction of deforestation. For example, one research study concluded that protected areas were likely responsible for saving 10% of the country's forests from being logged during intense land use change between 1960 and 1997[68].

Map showing the location of the Guanacaste Conservation Area in Costa Rica.

A specific protected area project in Costa Rica is the Guanacaste Conservation Area, the largest of its kind in the country[69]. It is regarded as a leading model globally for its successful management and protection of the environment. This protected area spans over 147,000 hectares in the northwest region of the country and includes multiple ecosystems and habitat types[70]. These include various forest types, wetlands, water courses, oak forests, savannahs, estuaries, and beaches. It's protection of dry lowland forests is regarded as particularly significant as this considered a threatened habitat type in Costa Rica[69]. The overall area is also largely significant in terms of conservation, due to its vast expanse and the fact that it includes over 66% of all species types known in Costa Rica, including many endangered species[70]. The range of habitats and species allows for the conservation of substantial biodiversity that would otherwise be threatened by anthropogenic intervention. Another conservation specific benefit stemming from this protected area has been the regeneration of its forests that were previously existing in a degraded state. Additionally, the dry forests contained within the Guanacaste Conservation Area comprise one of the largest remaining unfragmented dry forest bodies in the region.

The Guanacaste Conservation Area also provides positive social outcomes to Costa Ricans through the incorporation of research and educational outreach[69]. For example, parataxonomists are to collect data observational data that allows for ongoing insight into the area's biodiversity. Additionally, people are employed to run an educational after-school program in a fishing village located adjacent to the protected area. The program incorporates marine field based activities and promotes the transfer of knowledge from the participants to their families and the broader community. This has resulted in decreased anthropogenic impacts on the marine areas of the Guanacaste Conservation Area.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lobo, Rodrigo (2016). Kappelle, Maarten (ed.). Costa Rican Ecosystems. University of Chicago Press. pp. 19–29.
  2. ↑ "San José Climate Data (Costa Rica)".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Donnelly, Jack (2019). "Paramo: The little known highland tundra of Costa Rica". Q Costa Rica.
  4. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil; Wikramanayak, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545 – via Oxford Academic.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Corrales, Lenin; Bouroncle, Claudia; Pereira, Juan (2015). "An overview of forest biomes and ecoregions of Central America". In Chiabai (ed.). Climate Change Impacts on Tropical Forests in Central America (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 17–38.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 WWF. "Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forest Ecoregions". WWF Global.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Petruzzello, Melissa (2022). "Tropical Dry Forest". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  8. ↑ Acuña-Piedra, Jéssica; Quesada-Román, Adolfo (2021). "Multidecadal biogeomorphic dynamics of a deltaic mangrove forest in Costa Rica". Ocean & Coastal Management. 211.
  9. ↑ Gordon, Frankie; Mata, Alfonso; Vinson, Bradleigh. (2004) Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest. California: University of California Press. pp. 136-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pnx19
  10. ↑ Reef, Ruth; Feller, Ilka; Catherine, Lovelock (2010). "Nutrition of mangroves". Tree Physiology. 30: 1148–1160.
  11. ↑ Jiménez, Jorge (2004). "Mangrove Forests under Dry Seasonal Climates in Costa Rica". Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica. University of California Press. pp. 136–143.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Kappelle, Maarten; Horn, Sally (2016). "The Páramo Ecosystem of Costa Rica's Highlands". Costa Rican Ecosystems. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 492–523.
  13. ↑ Montero, Andrea; Marull, Joan; Tello, Enric; Cattaneo, Claudio; Coll, Francesc; Pons, Manel; Infante-Amate, Juan; Urrego-Mesa, Alexander; Fernández-Landa, Alfredo (2021). "The impacts of agricultural and urban land use changes on plant and bird biodiversity in Costa Rica" (PDF). Regional Environmental Change. 21 (2).
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Kohlmann, Bert (2011). "Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica - An Animal and Plant Biodiversity Atlas". In Pavlinov, Igor (ed.). Research in Biodiversity - Models and Applications. IntechOpen. pp. 203–222.
  15. ↑ González-Maya, José; Víquez-R, Luis; Belant, Jerrold (2015). "Effectiveness of protected areas for representing species and populations of terrestrial mammals in Costa Rica". PloS One. 10 (5).
  16. ↑ York, Heather; Rodríguez-Herrera, Bernal; Laval, Richard; Timm, Robert; Lindsay, Kaitlin (2020). "Field key to the bats of Costa Rica and Nicaragua". Journal of Mammalogy. 100 (6): 1726–1749.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Sanchez, Julio; Criado, Juan; Sanchez, Cesar; Sandoval, Luis (2009). "Costa Rica". Important Bird Areas Americas - Priority sites for biodiversity conservation (PDF). BirdLife International. pp. 149–156.
  18. ↑ Castillo, Rodrigo; Amador, Jorge (2020). "Precipitation and temperature in Costa Rica at the end of the century based on NEX-GDDP projected scenarios". Atmosphere. 11 (12): 1323.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Robertson, Jeanne; Zamudio, Kelly (2009). "Genetic Diversification, Vicariance, and Selection in a Polytypic Frog". Journal of Heredity. 100 (6): 715–731.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Bogarín, Diego; Pupulin, Franco; Smet, Erik; Gravendeel, Barbara (2016). "Evolutionary diversification and historical biogeography of the orchidaceae in central America with emphasis on Costa Rica and Panama". Lankesteriana. 16 (2): 189–200.
  21. ↑ Bistolas, Kalia; Sakamoto, Reid; Fernandes, Jose; Goffredi, Shana (2014). "Symbiont polyphyly, co-evolution, and necessity in pentatomid stinkbugs from Costa Rica". Frontiers in Microbiology. 5.
  22. ↑ Bronstein, Judith. (1986). Coevolution And Constraints In A Neotropical Fig - Pollinator Wasp Mutualism (Costa Rica) (Order No. 8702694). ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (303488435). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/coevolution-constraints-neotropical-fig/docview/303488435/se-2
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Stiles, Gary (1985). "Seasonal Patterns and Coevolution in the Hummingbird-Flower Community of a Costa Rican Subtropical Forest". Ornithological Monographs (36): 757–787.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Jiménez, Iván; Palmer, Steven (1998). The History of Costa Rica: Brief, Up-to-date and Illustrated. San José, Costa Rica: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica. ISBN 9977-67-468-X.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Vogt, Melissa (2019). Variance in Approach toward a ‘Sustainable’Coffee Industry in Costa Rica: Perspectives from Within; Lessons and Insights. London: Ubiquity Press.
  26. ↑ Clement, Rachel; Horn, Sally (2001). "Pre-Columbian land-use history in Costa Rica: a 3000-year record of forest clearance, agriculture and fires from Laguna Zoncho". The Holocene. 11 (4): 419–426.
  27. ↑ Sokolow, Jayme (2003). "Rage without Reason". The Great Encounter: Native Peoples and European Settlers in the Americas. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0765609827.
  28. ↑ Galt, Ryan (2014). Food systems in an unequal world: Pesticides, vegetables, and agrarian capitalism in Costa Rica. University of Arizona Press.
  29. ↑ López-Angarita, Juliana; Roberts, Callum; Tilley, Alexander; Hawkins, Julie; Cooke, Richard (2016). "Mangroves and people: Lessons from a history of use and abuse in four Latin American countries". Forest Ecology and Management. 368: 151–162.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Sanchez-Azofeifa, Arturo (2000). "Chapter 16: Land use and cover change in Costa Rica: a geographic perspective". Quantifying Sustainable Development. Academic Press. pp. 473–501.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Riitters, Kurt (2007). "Forest Fragmentation". Forest Service U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Schwartz, Naomi. (2022). "GEOS 303 Lecture 13".
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Gluszek, Sarah; Ariano-Sánchez, Daniel; Cremona, Patricia; Goyenechea, Alejandra; Antonio Luque Vergara, Darío; Mcloughlin, Lee; Morales, Alejandro; Reuter Cortes, Adrian; Rodríguez Fonseca, Javier (2020). "Emerging trends of the illegal wildlife trade in Mesoamerica". Oryx. 55 (5): 708–716.
  34. ↑ Zahawi, Rakan; Guillermo, Duran; Kormann, Urs (2015). "Sixty-seven years of land-use change in southern Costa Rica". PloS one. 10 (11).
  35. ↑ Schwartz, Naomi. (2022). "GEOS 303 Lecture 11".
  36. ↑ "Forest Change Costa Rica". Global Forest Watch.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Rosero-Bixby, Luis, and Alberto Palloni. “Population and Deforestation in Costa Rica .” Springer, Human Sciences Press Inc., Nov. 1998, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/A:1023319327838.pdf.
  38. ↑ Montero, Andrea; Marull, Joan; Tello, Enric; Cattaneo, Claudio; Coll, Francesc; Pons, Manel; Infante-Amate, Juan; Urrego-Mesa, Alexander; Fernández-Landa, Alfredo (2021). "The impacts of agricultural and urban land-use changes on plant and bird biodiversity in Costa Rica (1986–2014)". Regional Environmental Change. 21 (2): 1–19.
  39. ↑ Schwartz, Naomi. (2022). "GEOS 303 Lecture 12".
  40. ↑ International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (2022). "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Red List.
  41. ↑ Karmalkar, A.; Bradley, Raymond; Diaz, Henry (2008). "Climate change scenario for Costa Rican montane forests". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (11).
  42. ↑ Enquist, Carolyn Armstrong Finnance (2002). "Predicted Regional Impacts of Climate Change on the Geographical Distribution and Diversity of Tropical Forests in Costa Rica". Journal of Biogeography. 29 (4): 519–534.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Santidrián Tomillo, Pilar; Saba, Vincent; Blanco, Gabriela; Stock, Charles; Paladino, Frank; Spotila, James (2012). "Climate driven egg and hatchling mortality threatens survival of Eastern Pacific leatherback turtles". PLoS One. 7 (5).
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Visco, Deborah; Michel, Nicole; Boyle, Alice; Sigel, Bryan; Woltmann, Stefan; Sherry, Thomas (2015). "Patterns and causes of understory bird declines in human-disturbed tropical forest landscapes: A case study from Central America". Biological Conservation. 191: 117–129.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Dolson, Sarah; Loewen, Elyssa; Jones, Kelsey; Jacobs, Shoshanah; Solis, Angel; Hallwachs, Winnie; Brunke, Adam; Janzen, Daniel; Smith, Alex (2021). "Diversity and phylogenetic community structure across elevation during climate change in a family of hyperdiverse neotropical beetles (Staphylinidae)". Ecography. 44 (5): 740–752.
  46. ↑ Kelly, Jennifer (2018). "Insights into the illegal trade of feline derivatives in Costa Rica". Global Ecology and Conservation. 13.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Carrillo, Eduardo; Wong, Grace; Cuarón, Alfredo (2008). "Monitoring Mammal Populations in Costa Rican Protected Areas under Different Hunting Restrictions". Conservation Biology. 14 (6): 1580–1591.
  48. ↑ "Costa Rica receives 54 million dollars for its leadership in conservation and action for climate". 2020.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 Little, Mary E; Blau, Emily (2020). "Social adaptation and climate mitigation through agrotourism: a case study of tourism in Mastatal, Costa Rica". Journal of Ecotourism. 19: 97–112 – via Taylor & Francis.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Young, Christie M. (2008). "Coffee Agroforestry Systems for Conservation and Economic Development". Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 16: 39–63 – via Taylor & Francis. line feed character in |title= at position 49 (help)
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 51.4 51.5 "Payments for Environmental Services Program: Costa Rica". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Government of Costa Rica (2018). "National Decarbonization Plan 2018-2050" (PDF). UNFCCC.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Costa Rica National Parks and Reserves". Go Visit Costa Rica.
  54. ↑ Umilia, E; Nabila, D H (2021). "Determination of the location of dragon fruit agrotourism development in Bangorejo Sub-district, Banyuwangi based on agrotourism development factors and land carrying capacity". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 778: 12–25 – via IOP Publishing.
  55. ↑ "The Eco Lodge". Villas Mastatal. 2022.
  56. ↑ "Sustainable Living in Paradise". Finca Siempre Verde. 2022.
  57. ↑ "La Iguana Chocolate". La Iguana Chocolate. 2005.
  58. ↑ Hergoualc'h, Kristell; Blanchart, Eric; Skiba, Ute; Henault, Catherine; Harmand, Jean-Michel (2012). "Changes in carbon stock and greenhouse gas balance in a coffee (Coffea arabica) monoculture versus an agroforestry system with Inga densiflora, in Costa Rica". Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 148: 102–110 – via Elsevier. line feed character in |title= at position 80 (help)
  59. ↑ Montero, Andrea; Marull, Joan; Tello, Enric; Cattaneo, Claudio; Coll, Francesc; Pons, Manel; Amate, Juan Infante; Mesa, Alexander Urrego; Landa, Alfredo Fernandez (2021). "The impacts of agricultural and urban land-use changes on plant and bird biodiversity in Costa Rica (1986-2014)". Regional Environmental Change. 21: 1–19 – via SpringerLink.
  60. ↑ "Get to Know Us".
  61. ↑ "Payment of Environmental Services". Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO).
  62. ↑ Lansing, David (2014). "Unequal Access to Payments for Ecosystem Services: The Case of Costa RicaUnequal Access to Payments for Ecosystem Services: The Case of Costa Rica". Development and Change. 45: 1310–1331.
  63. ↑ Rodrigo, Sierra; Russman, Eric (2006). "On the efficiency of environmental service payments: A forest conservation assessment in the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica". Ecological Economics. 59: 131–141.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Brownson, Katherine; Anderson, Elizabeth; Ferreirad, Susana; Wenger, Seth; Fowler, Laurie; German, Laura (2020). "Governance of Payments for Ecosystem Ecosystem services influences social and environmental outcomes in Costa Rica". Ecological Economics. 174: 106659.
  65. ↑ Smith, Eric (2021). "Costa Rica and carbon neutrality". The Tico Times.
  66. ↑ "Costa Rica Commits to Fully Decarbonize by 2050". UNFCCC. 2019.
  67. ↑ Timperley, Jocelyn T (2020). "The long road to a zero-carbon country". BBC.
  68. ↑ Andam, Kwaw; Ferraro, Paul; Pfaff, Alexander; Robalino, Juan; Sanchez-Azofeifa,, Arturo (2008). "Measuring the effectiveness of protected area networks in reducing deforestation". PNAS. 105 (45): 16089–16094.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 "Area de Conservación Guanacaste, Costa Rica: world model for large protected area management". International Conservation Fund of Canada.
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "Area de Conservación Guanacaste". UNESCO World Heritage Convention.


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