Course:GEOS303/2022/Brazil (Pantanal)

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The Pantanal is one of the 6 biomes located in Brazil. Most of its area is located in Brazil and Bolivia, with a small portion in Paraguay.[1] The Pantanal is one of the largest wetlands in the world. Its total area covers 140,000 km2 [1] and the total floodplain drains into a 280,000 km2 watershed. Its boundaries connect with the Amazon (Equatorial rain forest) and the Cerrado (Savanna) which in turn influence on the climate and biophysical characteristics of this unique biome. It has an incredibly rich biodiversity and is home to many species that depend on the natural landscape as their habitat. Today the land is facing issues regarding its use for agriculture and human activity, as well as the conservation of some species which are becoming endangered.

there are mountains in the background, green vegetation in the foreground with some grass and a fence.
Landscape picture of a northern Pantanal cattle farm (Fazenda Santa Tereza, MS)

Biogeography

The Pantanal is one of the world’s largest wetland regions.[2] It is a tropical wetland, and it is dominated by three types of ecosystems at different elevations: higher ridges with trees, grasslands that flood seasonally, and bodies of water.[1] The species in these three ecosystem types often do not overlap. In the wetlands, the soil can provide nutrients to the surrounding organisms and the plants can serve as natural protection from disturbances like typhoons.[3] The floods in the Pantanal can occur from both heavy precipitation and rising water levels in the rivers. The types of trees present can vary from deciduous to dry-tolerant.[1]

Ecoregions

The Pantanal is also in close proximity to other biomes of Brazil, such as the Amazon and the Cerrado. Much of the grasslands in the Pantanal overlap with the Cerrado, which is similar to a savanna.[1] The vegetation in these grassy ecosystems are often fire-tolerant and grow on sandy soils which do not offer many nutrients. It is common to find trees of the Anadenanthera and Hymenaea genera here.

The higher elevation forests are known to also overlap with the Amazon's forests. The tropical rainforest of the Amazon has much higher temperature and precipitation levels, but it borders the Pantanal in some areas so there is a relative midpoint in climate where they meet. Species in the Amazon rainforest, primarily mammals such as jaguars and deer, and tropical birds, have been known to also cross over into the Pantanal, and both biomes are inhabited by them.[4] (see section on Animal Diversity)

The aquatic ecosystems here include rivers, lakes and many ponds known as salinas.[1] Native species include plants from the Echinodorus genus and grasses from the Paspalum genus. A key characteristic of the vegetation here is that many of them are aquatic plants that float to the surface, called macrophytes.[1] Since the water levels change with the seasons, the aquatic plants are very adaptive and dynamic and are able to adjust their water intake.

Climate

Brazil’s Pantanal is located in a tropical climatic zone roughly 20˚S and 60˚W. The region maintains an average temperature of 24˚C and receives 1,000–1,250mm of annual rainfall. Fluctuations in rainfall across different years, or interannual rainfall variability, can result in prolonged periods of heavy flooding or drought. Recurrent climate events like El Niño/La Niña influence the seasonality of floods and droughts in the Pantanal, which in turn have implications for conservation efforts, agriculture, and ecotourism.[2]Varying discharge patterns of the Paraguay river during geological time periods helped with the large habitat diversity we see today. [4]

Limitations

The Pantanal's geography is characterized by a large basin called the Pantanal Basin, surrounded by higher ridges[5]. This difference in elevation is likely the reason for the distinct ecosystem types being present in the same region. The lowest points of the region are at approximately 150 m above sea level. The Pantanal is adjacent to other major basins such as the Paraguay Basin and Andean Foreland Basin.[5] The soil primarily consists of Cenozoic sandy sediments, which can be found at the beds of many of the rivers and wetlands in the Pantanal.[5] This is not ideal for the growth of certain plants which require more nutrients, which is why a large amount of the plant species here are very adaptive. In a similar manner, it has proven difficult to cultivate crops in this region, so humans have begun using the land for cattle raising instead.

Diversity

Soil Diversity

In comparison to other biomes in Brazil, the Pantanal can be characterized as a small region. While it may lack size, its soil composition is can be extremely different when comparing northern, central, and southern parts. Overall, soil composition in the area is a result of sediments being deposited during multiple glacial and interglacial periods in the Pleistocene. The difference in soils within this region depends on the concentrations of sand, minerals, nutrient content, and the ability of the sediments to form distinct clay minerals.[6] The Brazilian Pantanal is observed to have Sandstone of varying ages on the eastern side in places known as Chapada dos Parceis, Chapada dos Guimarães, Serra de Maracaju and Serra de São Jeronimo. Limestone areas include Serra das Araras and Serra Bodoquena, and in a small area called Serra de São Vicente minor granitic outcrops were discovered. Lastly, Precambrian Massifs were established on the western border of Urucum and Amolar [4]. During wetter seasons, clay sediment would most commonly be deposited due to slower water flow and longer flooding season which is also the way this type of sediment moves nowadays. In contrast, drier glacial periods moved rougher and larger sediments such as more sandy sediments, due to the stronger more concentrated but less frequent rains in the region. It is also highly likely that the dry periods during the years contributed to the creation of the Nhecolândia saline lakes in the Pantanal Region, which until recently were not well studied or understood. [6]

Nhecolândia Saline Lakes

Known to the local pantanieros as salinas, these saline lakes have been conserved and managed in the region due to their usefulness, providing minerals such as sodium and potassium for cattle-raising. It is estimated that 637 pans cover 98km2 and each lake is surrounded by fine sandy shorelines with a shallow depth of around 1-2 meters. The Nhecolândia salt lake's ph is basic and ranges from about 9.1 - 10.2 compared to the average fresh waters ph of 6.5. Many theories have been circulated about how and when these salt lakes were formed. The most recent theory suggests that salt lakes are more recent phenomena that were created during the early-middle Holocene aridity. Depressions of different depths with complex marginal sand ridges were created that were perfect for shallow lakes to form in. These saline lakes started to appear due to limited groundwater recharge and evaporation in the basins as seasonal flood channels would not reach them. Stronger South American Monsoon Systems are also believed to have influenced their creation.[7]

Water lilies floating in the Paraguay River in the Cerra do Amolar Region, MS, Brazil

Plant Biodiversity

The Pantanal’s quite recent creation in the Holocene and its connection to other biomes makes it a place with few rare and endemic species. While its biodiversity is vast, one can find similar plant species inhabiting the Pantanal coming from other biomes such as the Amazon, Cerrado (savanna), Meridional Forests in the South, as well as the Bolivian and Paraguayan Chacoareas. [8] An example of the shared biodiversity with the Amazon is water lilies whose seeds are able to flow down the Paraguay River where they can grow in river inlets and sides where water is calmer even after the rainy season ends. Other influences such as deciduous and semi-deciduous trees on ancient levees also called cordilheiras come from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest on the coast of the country. The most visible type of vegetation biodiversity is adopted from the Cerrado dominating about 50% of the area. Within the Savanna vegetation found in the Pantanal, wooded has the highest amount of square kilometers (25,205.9), coming in second to the grassy (8,880.7) and forest (8,984.0 square km) savannas [8]. The vegetation that is visible during flooding is locally known as capão and if they are larger and rounder, as mentioned before, cordilheiras are great sports of refuge for plants and animals during the flooding season[6].

Animal Biodiversity

Fish

Due to the Pantanal's flood and dry seasons that brings great variability to the present ecosystems, this floodplain is a difficult place for exotic species to survive. Fishes are the most studied group in the Pantanal and research shows a list of 263 fish species that belong to 161 genera and 36 families. The connectivity of the rivers in the Pantanal into different biomes offers fish species multiple river channels for migration to occur and through their spawning behavior, researchers are able to categorize accordingly. "White" fish are known to be medium to large size and move with the river's water levels so often their migration consists of going up-river to spawn. "Black" fish retreat to remaining water bodies when water levels become low, also having extreme resistance to low oxygen concentrations. "Grey" fish are categorized as in the middle of black and white, living in the main river channels during dry seasons, and moving to floodplains during wet seasons. When compared to other biomes such as the Amazon, Pantanal fish species is considered poor but essential to the local economy[4].

Two Jabiru, also known as Tuiuiú in their nest

Birds

Estimates for bird species in the Pantanal are between 600-700 species, but it is still debated due to the spatial definition of the Pantanal, quality of records, and status of the species (whether resident or migrant). Overlap of species between biomes is very high, about 97% of species found in the Pantanal were also found in the Cerrado, and there is 39% similarity in species within all biomes of Brazil. Therefore there are no endemic species found in the Pantanal region. Birds are separated into three categories, "aquatic", "wetland-dependent" and "terrestrial species". Out of these categories, terrestrial species are the most abundant, most likely because they don't show preferences for wetland habitats yet have no problem inhabiting them too. Pantanal's geographical location makes it a very important place for migrant species in South America during the winter[4].

Mammals

The number of mammal species in the Pantanal is estimated to be 132, and similarly to birds and fish, there is a big overlap of species in the different biomes with the highest of 91% being the Cerrado and 85% of overlap with Amazonia. The large carrying capacity of mammals in the Pantanal comes from the cattle industry, so herbivorous diversity in native mammals is quite low in the wetlands. The ratio of native species to cattle is about 1:10, which shows the use of land in the Pantanal being high for profit. The most popular species known as the "big 5" in Pantanal are Jaguars (Onça-Pintada), Tapir (Anta), Giant Ant Eater (Tamanduá Bandeira), Marsh Deer (Cervo-do-Pantanal), and Capibaras (Capivara). Jaguars are the top predators in the area but other "cats" like the Puma, Ocelot, and Jaguarundi are also found in the region. Tapirs, Marsh deer, and Maned Wolfs are also found in the endangered species lists, especially in Brazil. Some common species found in the Pantanal are the Capibaras and White-lipped peccaries. The lack of dense forests in the Pantanal is an additional reason for the low number of rodents and monkeys. [4]

Giant Ant Eater walking in the Pantanal

Human influences (historical)

Land use change

Land use change in the Pantanal has severely disrupted hydrological function and aquatic ecosystems. Increased agriculture — specifically on an industrial scale — has caused erosion and sedimentation over the past 25 years. This alters runoff patterns and can have long-term effects on fluvial geomorphology, creating unstable river channels that are less supportive of wildlife, vegetation, and ultimately humans. [9]

Development

Human development like extensive road and dike construction over the past several decades has interfered with wildlife mobility and river flow. Roads decrease habitat continuity and make animals more vulnerable to poaching and vehicle mortality. Raised roads in particular alter water flow and level, reducing oxygen availability and creating less hospitable conditions for vegetation to grow. Meanwhile, raised dikes are a common flood mitigation instrument and have human utility in wetland regions like the Pantanal. Examples include the 60,000-hectare area in the Cuiabá subregion that was built in the early 1970s, as well as the area downriver of Ladário along the Paraguay River. However, both of these projects are considered to have had negative environmental impacts. Diked waters, for instance, are more stagnant than unobstructed floodplains, blocking the natural flow of sediment and nutrients. These stagnant waters can harbour invasive plant species and increase inundation levels outside the diked areas. [9]

Threats (present and future)

Development Projects

The pressure to implement development projects with serious environmental impacts has increased, especially the implementation of hydroelectric plants in the headwaters of rivers. These activities are constantly carried out without responsibility due to corruption and lack of an meanigful Environment Impact Assessment, leading to habitat mischaracterization. The water cycle is seminal for maintaining Pantanal's biodiversity, and any modification can compromise the ecosystems and change the entire landscape.[10]

Lack of protected areas

Only some areas guarantee the protection of the BAP (Upper Paraguay Basin), despite the proven importance of the Pantanal and its surroundings for the maintenance of water resources and the conservation of biodiversity. According to the Department of the Environment of Mato Grosso do Sul (SEMA/MS) and the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), solely 2.9% of the BAP and 4.5% of the Pantanal area is protected by a conservation unit (Harris et al., 2006).[11]

Cattle Raising

Although under an evident need for the increase of protected areas in the Pantanal, Jair Bolsonaro, the Brazilian current president, keeps approving laws that allow cattle raising in areas previously protected[12][13]. On June 29, for example, the Legislative Assembly of Mato Grosso (the Brazilian state where the biggest Pantanal area is located) approved Bill (PL) nº 561/2022[14], which would allow cattle in the “permanent preservation areas,” “legal reserves,” and all other areas of the Pantanal destined for permanent conservation, according to the forest code (Law 12.727/2012).

Although Jair Bolsonaro states that cattle help prevent fires, there is enough scientific information that proves this argument wrong. The presence of cows contributes to deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and erosion, resulting in silting up of water bodies[15]. The lack of vegetation also makes the lands more vulnerable to fires, which in turn contributes to habitat loss for the over 1000 species that live in Pantanal and, under warmer temperatures, can extend to both the Cerrado (Brazilian Savanna) and Amazonia (Brazilian rainforest)[16].

Climate Change

Pantanal, as we have seen, is a humid biome, and therefore it relies deeply on the hydrological cycle of floods and droughts for its maintenance. The increase in mean temperatures due to climate change is unbalancing this cycle, with a significant increase in extreme dry periods. In the long term, this will “strangle” the wetlands, making them increasingly smaller and, therefore, less apt to uphold vegetal and animal populations.

It is important to note that there is positive feedback between climate change and the previous threats mentioned. The clearance of vegetation for cattle raising contributes for climate change both by decreasing forest area, and therefore carbon sinks, and by increasing methane concentrations (yielded by bovine enteric fermentation, which is a biological digestion process in ruminants). Moreover, the clearance of vegetation for development projects like hydroelectric plants further contributes to the extreme dry periods by limiting the amount of water in important river streams. [17]

Conservation

Onçafari

A photograph of the Jaguar named Isa, which is one of the first successful Jaguar re-introductions into the wild.

Origins

The Onçafari project was founded in 2011 by the retired race car driver Mario Haberfeld. His idea of introducing Jaguar ecotourism in the Brazilian Pantanal was inspired by the work done in South Africa with leopard tracking. Despite being illegal to hunt and kill Jaguars in Brazil, this species still suffers kills from poachers who blame Jaguars for killing their cattle. Mario's great love for nature and the natural habitats in his country lead him to partner with the Caiman Ecological Refuge to research and develop Jaguar ecotourism in Brazil. It was not easy for operations to start, but with help from experienced African wildlife trackers, the Onçafari project started habituating Esperança (English translation of Hope), one of the first Jaguars that helped Onçafari become the NGO it is now[18].

Jaguar conservation goals and successes

The overall goal of this project was to protect Jaguars in the Pantanal and change the relationship of communities in the area with this species to show them that through ecotourism, Jaguars are more worthy alive than dead. With the help of monitoring specific Jaguars with radio collars, initially, it was also important to the biologists in the project to see where specific Jaguar's habitats were so that they were habituating the right animals that stayed within the Caiman Ecological Refuge and they would not be at risk being killed at other cattle farms. Nowadays, this is less of an issue as the project has a lot of attention and other cattle farms around the refuge support Onçafari's mission of Jaguar conservation. With the expansion of this NGO, Onçafari was able to successfully re-introduce two Jaguars named Isa and Fera after their mother's accidental death. Both were put into a big enclosure area within the Caiman Refuge and had very little interaction with humans. After learning to hunt on their own, with the proper evaluation of the Onçafari team both girls were released into the wild with radio collars for monitoring. The project of Rewilding these two Jaguars was deemed successful in 2018 when both had cubs born into the wild[19].

Jaguar named Joker yawning in Caiman Ecological Refuge

Expansion with new projects

Through its growth and success with Jaguar ecotourism, Onçafari has other focuses besides Ecotourism which are Science, Education, Rewild, Social, and Forests. The science includes increasing our scientific knowledge of Jaguars by collecting blood samples and information when putting radio collars on specific Jaguars, tracking their territory, and collecting camera trap images for data[20]. Education includes raising awareness of the importance of preserving biodiversity and Jaguars through presentations in schools, communities, and events, as well as nature documentaries and field experiences [21]. As mentioned before with Isa and Fera, Rewilding is now a permanent project to re-introduce Jaguars and other small to large mammals back into the wild, not only in the Pantanal but in the Amazon too. Other success stories include Jaguars Pandora and Vivara which were released in Reserva do Cachimbo, belonging to the Brazilian Air Force (FAB)[22]. Similarly to Education, the social part of Onçafari aims to interact with and help local schools and communities to learn about Jaguars, but also provide other help they might need [23]. The last project Onçafari has taken a part in is Forests, which is the conservation of areas to provide shelters for biodiversity and safe passage for local wildlife in the Pantanal and Amazonia. This is achieved through philanthropy and Onçafari takes over to maintain and monitor these areas and keep them safe[24]. Through their 11 years of hard work, Onçafari has become a respectable and internationally known NGO that is doing exceptional work for Jaguar conservation and has recently also started Maned-Wolf conservation, also an endangered species, in different parts of Brazil.

Arara Azul Institute

Two Blue Macaws sitting on the tree

During the ’80s, the Arara Azul (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) was included in appendix 1 of CITES, the Red Data Book, and in the official list of Brazilian fauna at extinction risk. Some of the reasons why the species was rapidly decreasing included the following:

  1. The fragmentation of their habitat (mainly for agricultural development);
  2. The illegal capture of international markets;
  3. The production with souvenirs (using the famous Arara Azul feathers).

The project was created with two main objectives. The first was to ensure the Arara Azul populations don’t go extinct, and the second was to promote the conservation of the Pantanal Biome as a whole. The project does so by conserving and introducing nests, intending to recover Arara Azul populations in their habitat, avoiding capture and reproduction in captivity.

After over 20 years of the project, the Arara Azul is no longer part of the extinction lists mentioned before. However, it is still regarded as vulnerable on the red list of endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).[25]

Cabeceiras do Panatanal Project

Origins

The Cabeceiras do Pantanal Project is an initiative of the Instituto Homem Pantaneiro (IHP) with the objective of promoting the conservation, preservation, and sustainable management of the headwaters and Permanent Preservation Areas (PPA) of the plateau of the Alto Paraguai Basin.

Since being founded in 2002, the project has continued to identify areas with higher risk of environmental fragility in order to guarantee water availability and the expansion of native vegetation cover. In addition to these diagnostic actions, Cabeceiras seeks to build strategies for the protection and recovery of springs by emphasizing dialogue with rural land owners.[26]

Objectives

The project currently has four main focuses:

1. Miranda River Basin

A study conducted by Cabeceiras identified the Miranda River Basin as the most degraded sub-basin of the plateau of the Alto Paraguai Basin — largely due to the mass conversion of native areas to pasture and agricultural lands in the last decade. Therin, the IHP has focused most of its monitoring and recovery actions in the region since 2017.[26]

2. River Plate Basin

The Rio de Prata Basin — located within the larger Miranda River Basin — has been chosen as a pilot area for a recovery project due to the advancement of agricultural lands into areas with remnants of native vegetation as well as PPAs located near springs.[26]

The planned actions for this project include:

  • Identify landowners;
  • Fencing the area to prevent public access;
  • Construction of terraces to minimize erosion by water;
  • Construction of containment basins to block the entry of water into the river;
  • Planting of seedlings and seeds to accelerate the regeneration of PPAs when necessary.

Depending on the outcome of the project, Cabeceiras hopes to subsequently replicate the project in other areas.[26]

3. Environmental Monitoring

Cabeceiras conducts environmental monitoring in relation to several aspects including:

  • Fauna — A team travels the rivers recording the species of mammals, reptiles, and birds as well as tracks and feces of mammals that help indicate the environmental quality of the river.[26]
  • Quality of rivers — The Rapid Assessment Protocol (RAP) is applied in order to assess the quality of rivers, evaluated through physical, ecological, bio-ecological, and socio-environmental aspects. The results are used to diagnose the rivers (i.e., preserved/altered/impacted) and identify priority areas for recovery actions.[26]
  • Inspection of vessels — The inspection of water vessels takes place in which amateur or professional fishing licenses are requested from fishermen. Regulation of fishing activity in the state includes prohibited areas, limit for the capture and transport of specimen, and the minimum/maximum size of each species.[26]
  • Recovery actions — The project aims for the recovery of priority areas through actions such as planting seedlings and constructing contour lines on rural properties.[26]
  • Environmental education — The Cabeceiras works in partnership with the Instituto Guarda Mirim de Bonito in the environmental education of students and accompanying river recovery projects.[26]
4. GeoPantanal Platform

With the support of AgroTools, a Brazilian company specialized in geotechnology and remote sensing, a Geographic Information System called the GeoPantanal Platform was developed. This Platform has helped make both satellite and field data available in a web environment for further research on the springs and PPAs of the Pantanal. The dynamic nature of the database and the Platform proves to be a valuable tool to guide environmental policies and the work of various sectors in relation to the conservation of the Pantanal.[26] GIS technology will continue to be an essential tool within the realm of conservation by aiding in the understanding of spatial patterns of ecological phenomena.

National Initiative for the Conservation of Lowland Tapirs

The National Initiative for the Conservation of Lowland Tapirs (Iniciativa Nacional para a Conservação da Anta Brasileira) is a program led by the Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas (IPÊ) to protect the lowland tapirs of Brazil.[27] The program was initiated in 1996 and began with a focus on the Great Pontal Reserve's Atlantic Forest, but later expanded to address the tapir populations of the entire country.[27] It is the first long-term tapir research program in Brazil and the largest in the world, as no similar studies have been conducted on the species before it. The primary goal of this program is to collect data on the populations, genetics, and health of the tapirs.[27] These factors will assist researchers in strategizing for the conservation of the species.

Major threats to the livelihood of the tapirs include agriculture in the region, which can involve the use of pesticides, and the presence of roads which could lead to the tapirs being run over.[27]

Research & Action Planning

The researchers' tasks include the following:

  • Monitoring the density of the tapir populations through both radio telemetry and footprint tracking[27]
  • Using radio telemetry to identify the regions where the tapirs travel; both the range (how far they travel) and the frequency (where they go the most often)[27]
  • Observing the tapirs' movements across different landscapes and how they utilize the terrain and resources in different habitats, which help inform the recommendations about their conservation[27]
  • Observing the tapirs' social structure and reproductive patterns through the use of cameras[27]
  • Investigating the genetic variation and limitations of tapir populations to help estimate their health[27]
  • Monitoring the presence of pathogens or diseases in the tapir populations as well as the livestock in the surrounding region, since their proximity to one another may result in transferring pathogens between each other[27]
  • Determining the probability of the tapir populations' survival and predicting changes in population numbers[27]

Bichos do Pantanal

Bichos do Pantanal is an initiative that works to increase the scientific knowledge and the preservation of charismatic megafauna, like the giant river otter, emblematic species like the jaguar, as well as other smaller species integral to the Pantanal ecosystem, like fish and birds. The project is sponsored by Petrobras Ambiental Program, an environmental welfare sector of the Petrobras Energy corporation. The project’s sponsorship is important to note given the funding is from a member of the fossil fuel industry, and thus has goals that directly oppose that of the project.

Bichos do Pantanal identifies the Brazilian population’s general concern about the natural world, yet they show a startling lack of knowledge about endemic species in their own neighbourhoods. Thus, the project aims to provide environmental education to youth and training for natural leaders and wildlife guides who can then inform visitors and local community members.

In a partnership with the University of Kansas, the project uses iNaturalist to collect data from citizen scientists. This not only mobilizes people to participate in scientific research, but builds an international community around appreciation of natural conservation. The photos from each observation are independently verified and then logged as official scientific data.

Currently, Bichos do Pantanal is engaged in research on jaguars, water hyacinths, and plant-fish mutualisms in the region of Cáceres. [28]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Pott, A., & Pott, V. J. (2004). Features and conservation of the brazilian pantanal wetland. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 12(6), 547-552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-005-1754-1
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Marengo JA, Alves LM, Torres RR (2016) Regional climate change scenarios in the Brazilian Pantanal watershed. Clim Res 68:201-213. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01324
  3. ↑ CIFOR. (2012). Tropical wetlands initiative: For climate adaptation and mitigation, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor/003761
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Adis, Joachim; Da Cunha, Catia Nunes; Junk, Wolfgang J.; Marques, Marinêz Isaac; Petermann, Peter; Strüssmann, Christine; Wantzen, Karl M. (October 2006). "Biodiversity and its conservation in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, Brazil". Aquatic Sciences – via research gate.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Soares, Paulo César; Assino, Mario Luís; Rabelo, Luciano (March 1999). "The Pantanal Basin: Recent Tectonics, Relationships to the Transbrasiliano Lineament". Universidade Federal do Paraná.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Guimarães Couto, Eduardo; Álvaro de Oliveira, Virlei (January 2010). "The soil diversity of the Pantanal". The Pantanal of Mato Grosso: Ecology, Biodiversity and Sustainable Management of a Large Neotropical Seasonal Wetland. Pensoft – via Research gate.
  7. ↑ Guerreiro, Renato; Bergier, Ivan; McGlue, Michael; Warren, Lucas; Gomes Pinto de Abreu, Urbano; Abrahão, Jônatas; Assine, Mario (December 2017). "The soda lakes of Nhecolândia: A conservation opportunity for the Pantanal wetlands". Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação – via Science Direct. line feed character in |title= at position 66 (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Pott, Arnildo; Kleber Morbeck Oliveira, Ademir; Damasceno-Junior, Geraldo (April 2011). "Plant diversity of the Pantanal wetland". Brazilian journal of biology = Revista brasleira de biologia – via Research Gate.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Hamilton, S.K. (2002). "Human impacts on hydrology in the Pantanal wetland of South America". Water Science and Technology. 45(11): 35–44 – via ProQuest.
  10. ↑ Rosenkopf, Lori, and Paul Almeida. "Overcoming local search through alliances and mobility." Management science 49.6 (2003): 751-766.
  11. ↑ HARRIS, Mônica B., et al. "Estimativa da perda de cobertura vegetal original na Bacia do Alto Paraguai e Pantanal brasileiro: ameaças e perspectivas." Natureza & Conservação 4.2 (2006): 50-66.
  12. ↑ Dick, M., M.A. da Silva, R. Rodrigues, F. da Silva, O.G.L. Ferreira, M.S. Maia, S.F. de Lima, V.B. de Paiva Neto & H. Dewes. 2021. Environmental impacts of Brazilian beef cattle production in the Amazon, Cerrado, Pampa, and Pantanal biomes. Journal of Cleaner Production 311(6): art. 127750.
  13. ↑ Guerra, A., F.O. Roque, L.C. Garcia. J.M. Ochoa-Quintero. P.T.S. de Oliveira. R.D. Guariento &I.M.D. Rosa. 2020. Drivers and projections of vegetation loss in the Pantanal and surrounding ecosystems. Land Use Policy 91: art. 104388.
  14. ↑ Garcia, F. 2022. Deputados aprovam projeto que altera política de proteção da bacia pantaneira. Diário de Caceres, 30 de junho de 2022.
  15. ↑ Ferrante, L., F.B. Baccaro, E.B. Ferreira, M.F.O. Sampaio, T. Santos, R.C. Justino & A. Ângulo. 2017. The matrix effect: How agricultural matrices shape forest fragment structure and amphibian composition. Journal of Biogeography 44: 1911-1922.
  16. ↑ Ribeiro, A.F.S., P.M. Brando, L. Santos, L. Rattis, M. Hirschi, M. Hauser, S.I. Seneviratne & J. Zscheischler. 2022. A compound event-oriented framework to tropical fire risk assessment in a changing climate. Environmental Research Letters 17: art. 065015.
  17. ↑ TV Morena, Mato Grosso do Sul (December, 2015). "Pantanal pode ser drasticamente afetado por mudanças climáticas". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ↑ "Our Story". Onçafari.
  19. ↑ "Rewild". Onçafari.
  20. ↑ "Onçafari Science". Onçafari.
  21. ↑ "Onçafari Education". Onçafari.
  22. ↑ "Rewild Onçafari". Onçafari. Retrieved 12/01/22. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  23. ↑ "Social Onçafari". Onçafari.
  24. ↑ "Forests Onçafari". Onçafari.
  25. ↑ Arara Azul Institute (November 28th 2022). "Arara Azul Project". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 "Cabeceiras do pantanal - instituto homem pantaneiro". Instituto Homem Pantaneiro. 8 July 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2022.
  27. ↑ 27.00 27.01 27.02 27.03 27.04 27.05 27.06 27.07 27.08 27.09 27.10 "Iniciativa Nacional para a Conservação da Anta Brasileira". IPÊ. Retrieved December 2, 2022.
  28. ↑ "Bichos do Pantanal".


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