Course:FNH200/Projects/2025/What is the magic behind Coca-Cola's global popularity?

The Coca-Cola we know today is not a static 19th-century formula, but a modern industrial product that has been continuously evolved and reshaped by waves of food science. Its global success is less a result of brand magic and more the direct outcome of a series of key innovations in food technology. This project aims to trace the evolution of Coca-Cola, arguing that every stage—from ingredient processing and quality control to product diversification and global distribution—was made possible by advancements in food science, which ultimately built its commercial empire.

Type	Sugar-sweetened soft drink
Country of origin	United States
Alcohol by volume	0%
Color	Dark brown (caramel color)
Flavour	Sweet, acidic, mildly spiced cola
Ingredients	Carbonated water, sugar (or HFCS), caramel color, phosphoric acid, caffeine, natural flavours (including decocainized coca leaf extract)
Caffeine (per can)	~34 mg (355 mL)
Variants	Cherry, Vanilla, Lime

Overview (History)

Coca-Cola is a sugar-sweetened carbonated beverage produced by the Coca-Cola Company. Its origins trace back to May 8th, 1886, when Dr. John Pemberton brought it to his pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia. The original recipe was marketed as a tonic that could cure a variety of ailments. The key ingredients in Coca-Cola were originally cocaine, an extract from coca leaves, and caffeine, from extracts of the kola nut. Cocaine was removed from the drink in 1904.

Coca-Cola was the only 'Coke' line drink that was sold until 1982, when Diet Coke was introduced. Following its success, they introduced Coca-Cola Zero, a zero-calorie version in 2005. In 2017, the Coca-Cola Company changed the recipe of Coca-Cola Zero and rebranded the drink as Coke Zero, which is where it currently remains today.

The Original Recipe

The original recipe was supposedly revealed by Pendergast in a book. This is the original recipe:

Ingredients:

• 1 oz (28 g) caffeine citrate
• 3 oz (85 g) citric acid
• 1 US fl oz (30 ml) vanilla extract
• 1 US qt (946 ml) lime juice
• 2.5 oz (71 g) "flavouring" (i.e., "Merchandise 7X")
• 30 lb (14 kg) sugar
• 4 US fl oz (118.3 ml) fluid extract of coca leaves (flavour essence of the coca leaf)
• 2.5 US gal (9.5 L; 2.1 imp gal) water
• caramel sufficient to give color
• "Mix caffeine, citric acid and lime juice in 1 quart boiling water add vanilla and flavouring when cool."

Merchandise 7X was a flavouring produced by Pendergast to prevent producers and distributors from knowing the full recipe. Flavouring (Merchandise 7X):

• 1 qrt alcohol
• 80 oil orange
• 40 oil cinnamon
• 120 oil lemon
• 20 oil coriander
• 40 oil nutmeg
• 40 oil neroli
• "Let stand 24 hours."

This original recipe was claimed to be a treatment for ailments such as morphine addiction, headaches, etc. Key ingredients are delved further into in later sections.

Carbonation and Flavour Stability

Carbonation is central to Coca-Cola’s unique sensory experience, contributing to its refreshing mouthfeel, subtle acidity, and aroma release. Alongside its proprietary flavour blend, the balance of carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration is critical in maintaining the brand’s signature taste worldwide. As a globally distributed beverage, Coca-Cola faces the challenge of preserving carbonation levels across varying climates and transportation conditions. Fluctuations in ambient temperature, storage environments, and distribution distances can all impact the beverage’s sensory quality. In regions with high heat or significant altitude changes, maintaining optimal carbonation requires strategic production and packaging adjustments.

Carbonation refers to the process of dissolving CO₂ into a liquid under pressure, resulting in effervescence and a tingling mouthfeel upon consumption. The solubility of CO₂ decreases with rising temperature and lower pressure. This means that high temperatures or rapid pressure changes can lead to premature release of CO₂, reducing the product’s fizziness. Environmental factors during transportation, such as exposure to heat in shipping containers or altitude changes during land or air transit, can accelerate CO₂ loss. This is a particular concern for long-distance exports or distribution in tropical climates.

Coca-Cola employs precision carbonation at the bottling stage, ensuring CO₂ levels are consistent with the desired sensory profile. In certain markets or shipping scenarios, slightly higher carbonation levels may be used to offset inevitable losses during storage and transit. Modern PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles often include barrier layers (such as nylon or special polymers) that reduce CO₂ permeability and prolong shelf life. In some regions, glass and aluminum are preferred due to their near-impermeable nature, helping to retain carbonation for extended periods.

Coca-Cola’s distinct flavour is sensitive to heat, light, oxygen, and microbes, challenges often faced during global distribution of any product. To preserve product integrity, the company relies on food science-based strategies. Preservatives like potassium sorbate and benzoates inhibit microbial growth, while antioxidants reduce flavour loss from oxidation. Phosphoric acid helps to regulate pH, extending shelf life and adding the drink’s signature tang. These additives are carefully balanced to ensure flavour stability and safety.

Packaging also plays a key role. Glass bottles provide excellent carbonation and oxygen barriers, aluminum cans block light and air, and PET plastic is engineered to reduce flavour and CO₂ loss. The table below compares these packaging types.

Packaging Comparison Table

Packaging Type	CO2 Retention	Flavour Protection	Light/Oxygen Barrier	Weight & Handling	Recyclability
Glass Bottle	Excellent	Excellent	Excellent	Heavy, fragile	High
Aluminum Can	Excellent	Very Good	Excellent	Lightweight, durable, stackable	High
Barrier-Enhanced PET	Good	Good	Moderate	Lightweight, shatter-resistant	Depends on local recycling infrastructure

*PET is a type of plastic that is commonly used to make bottles and containers for drinks, food, and other everyday products. It is lightweight, durable, clear, and moisture-resistant.

In terms of global standardization, Coca-Cola’s KORE system reflects key food science concepts, including food safety, quality assurance, and product consistency. Described as a framework that “governs operations across the Coca-Cola system”, KORE sets rigorous standards for water treatment, ingredient handling, and manufacturing. By applying the guidance and standards of global systems like HACCP and ISO 22000, Coca-Cola ensures microbial control and flavour stability across all bottling plants, demonstrating how food science principles support consistency in safety and taste worldwide.

Coca-Cola applies precise carbonation control, climate-adapted packaging, and advanced bottling techniques to preserve flavour and fizziness in its products worldwide. These food science strategies ensure a consistent, refreshing taste in every market despite differences in climate, altitude, and transport conditions.

Evolution of Key Recipes

While born in 1886, the Coca-Cola of today is no static relic. Its enduring success stems not only from iconic branding but from a formula that has been in constant evolution, shaped by over a century of advancements in food science and technology. This analysis delves into that transformation by examining its core components.

We will trace the journey of its foundational ingredients—coca leaf and caffeine—from their raw, historical origins to their purified and standardized modern forms. We will also explore the pivotal role of sweeteners in defining its taste and driving product diversification, from sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup to the non-nutritive alternatives that reshaped the beverage landscape.

Finally, this breakdown reveals how other crucial technological innovations in flavour science, stabilization, and packaging have been indispensable in achieving the global consistency and safety that underpin its brand, continuously refining Coca-Cola's identity, taste, and function for a modern world.

1. Coca Leaf Extract

Origin and History

Erythroxylum Coca

Coca leaves come from the Erythroxylum coca plant, traditionally cultivated in the Andes region of South America. In Coca-Cola’s original 1886 formula, coca leaves were used specifically for their cocaine alkaloids, which were believed to provide both medicinal and mild stimulant effects. This mirrored the popular 19th-century European coca wines, particularly Vin Mariani, which also infused coca in alcohol for therapeutic use.

Modern Usage

Since 1904, Coca-Cola has used a "de-cocainized coca leaf extract", meaning all psychoactive compounds—primarily cocaine—are chemically removed under strict legal control. Despite the removal of active narcotic agents, the extract remains a key component of Coca-Cola’s flavouring, referred to internally as “Merchandise 7X”. The leaves are legally imported under U.S. DEA supervision and processed by the Stepan Company in Maywood, New Jersey, the only U.S. facility authorized to import and handle coca leaves. The process of creating 'de-cocainized' extract is a sophisticated chemical engineering feat, ensuring that the final ingredient is completely free of psychoactive alkaloids while retaining its subtle flavour profile.

Function in the Beverage

Although the coca extract no longer has pharmacological effects, it continues to contribute subtle herbal and bitter flavour notes, which help preserve the signature taste profile and historical identity of Coca-Cola. This trace flavour component is thought to play a role in the beverage’s unique and enduring global appeal, even if its presence is largely symbolic today.

2. Caffeine

Original Source: Kola Nut

Kola Nuts

Coca-Cola’s name also reflects the use of kola nuts, seeds of the Cola tree, native to West Africa. The two most common species used are Cola nitida and Cola acuminata. These nuts are naturally rich in caffeine and theobromine, which were originally infused into the drink to provide a stimulating effect.

Most sources say this plant comes from an evergreen tree that grows to a medium height—about 40 to 60 feet tall. The tree has greenish-yellow or white flowers that often have purple spots. Its leaves are about 6 to 8 inches long, shaped like ovals with pointed ends. The tree produces star-shaped fruits, which are made up of green, wrinkled pods called follicles. Inside each pod, there are 1 to 10 seeds that look like small beans.

The cola nuts are brownish, about the size of a chestnut, and have a bitter taste when fresh. After drying, the taste becomes milder and faintly aromatic, with an odour that hints of nutmeg.

Kola nut is chewed in many West African countries, as it is known to ease hunger pangs. It also used to treat whooping cough and asthma, and it contains caffeine, essential oils, and alkaloids. Even today, chewing fresh kola nuts serves as a ‘social lubricant’ and holds deep cultural importance for many indigenous communities in West Africa, especially among those of the Islamic faith, who abstain from alcohol.

Modern Source and Standardization

Today, Coca-Cola uses externally added purified caffeine, typically synthesized or extracted from coffee or tea plants, instead of raw kola nut extracts. This ensures uniform caffeine content across global markets.

Given this global safe history of use and existing regulatory constraints on added caffeine levels to food and beverages, it is scientifically reasonable to conclude that consumption of kola nut extract as an added food ingredient is safe at present use levels. This shift from raw kola nuts to purified caffeine is a classic example of applying food processing technology to achieve dosimetric precision and cost-effectiveness, two pillars of modern global food manufacturing.

Physiological Effects

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that contributes to Coca-Cola’s energizing effect. A standard 355 mL (12 oz) can contains approximately 34 mg of caffeine, which can promote alertness and improve mood, especially when consumed habitually. This is considerably less than a typical 8 oz (237 mL) cup of brewed coffee, which can contain anywhere from 95 to 200 mg of caffeine.

Kola nuts may also help relieve morning sickness in pregnant women. Around 82.8% of pregnant women go through morning sickness, which often involves nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and spitting—typically more severe in the morning. Many try various remedies to ease these symptoms, and kola nut is one of the substances some women turn to. Although not well studied, interviews with a few pregnant women suggest they use kola nut to help relieve their morning sickness.

3. Sweeteners

Sucrose and HFCS

Coca-Cola’s sweetness comes from either sucrose (cane or beet sugar) or high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), depending on the country:

• Sucrose is commonly used in countries like Mexico, Canada, and most of Europe.
• HFCS is widely used in the United States, primarily for economic reasons.

Composition and Differences

Both sucrose and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) are composed of glucose and fructose, but they differ in structure and sweetness:

• Sucrose is a disaccharide made of one glucose molecule chemically bonded to one fructose molecule (1:1 ratio). The bond must be broken during digestion before the sugars are absorbed.
• HFCS, on the other hand, is a mixture of free glucose and free fructose, typically in a ratio of 55% fructose and 45% glucose (HFCS-55, commonly used in soft drinks). Because the sugars are not chemically bonded, they are absorbed more rapidly, which may contribute to metabolic concerns.
• Because the monosaccharides in HFCS are already free, they do not require hydrolysis in the small intestine and are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, leading to a faster glycemic response compared to sucrose.

Additional differences:

• HFCS is produced from corn starch through enzymatic conversion, making it cheaper to produce in the U.S. due to corn subsidies.
• Fructose is sweeter than glucose, which means HFCS can enhance perceived sweetness while using smaller volumes.
• There is ongoing debate in nutritional science about whether free fructose (as in HFCS) is more harmful than the bonded form in sucrose, particularly in terms of liver metabolism and fat storage.

Role in Taste and Public Health

Sweeteners make Coca-Cola appealing by providing a satisfying mouthfeel and immediate sweetness. However, they also account for the drink’s high calorie content—roughly 140 kcal per 355 mL can—and have been associated with health concerns such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.

Beyond mere sweetness, the choice of sweetener profoundly impacts the beverage's mouthfeel and temporal profile (how sweetness develops and fades over time). This is why creating sugar-free alternatives that perfectly mimic the sensory experience of sucrose remains a significant challenge in food science.

4. The Evolution of the Formula Driven by Food Technology

Coca-Cola's formula is not a static relic of 1886. On the contrary, it is a product that has continuously evolved from its original concept, leveraging over a century of advancements in food science and technology. To achieve global-scale production, enhance stability, reduce costs, and adapt to changing market demands, The Coca-Cola Company has consistently applied modern science to refine its recipe and manufacturing processes.

Key Aspects of Technological Evolution:

1. Ingredient Purification and Standardization:
   • From Crude to Refined: Early formulas relied on crude extracts of coca leaves and kola nuts, where the concentration of active compounds could vary. Modern food technology, particularly High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and other advanced separation techniques, allows for the precise extraction and quantification of specific compounds. The "de-cocainization" of coca leaves and the use of 99.9% pure caffeine are prime examples of this, ensuring absolute consistency in flavour and function across the globe.
   • Cost and Efficiency: The shift from sucrose to High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) was driven by breakthroughs in enzymatic engineering. The use of enzymes like glucose isomerase to convert glucose from corn starch into fructose made HFCS a significantly cheaper alternative in markets with corn subsidies, like the U.S.
2. Flavour Science and Consistency:
   • Flavour "Fingerprinting": Coca-Cola's secret flavour core, "Merchandise 7X," contains a blend of natural oils and essences. To ensure every bottle tastes identical, the company employs analytical techniques like Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). This technology creates a chemical "fingerprint" of the flavour profile, allowing for stringent quality control of raw materials and the final product.
   • Flavour Stability: Many flavour compounds, especially essential oils, are volatile and prone to oxidation. Modern microencapsulation technology can be used to wrap flavour molecules in a protective coating, shielding them from degradation during storage and ensuring they are released only when the beverage is consumed.
3. Product Diversification and Health Trends:
   • The Birth of Low/No-Calorie Options: In response to growing public health concerns about sugar, food technology enabled the creation of entirely new product lines. The development and mastery of non-nutritive sweeteners—first artificial ones like Aspartame, Acesulfame Potassium (Ace-K), and Sucralose, and later natural ones like Stevia—made Diet Coke and Coke Zero possible. The science of blending these sweeteners is key to mimicking the mouthfeel and sweetness profile of sucrose while masking any potential off-notes.
4. Stability and Shelf Life:
   • Acidity and Preservation: Beyond its contribution to taste, Phosphoric Acid is a critical application of food technology. As an acidulant, it lowers the beverage's pH to around 2.5. This highly acidic environment inhibits the growth of bacteria and mold, acting as an effective preservative that dramatically extends the product's shelf life.
   • Carbonation and Packaging: Modern carbonation systems precisely control the amount of dissolved CO2​ to achieve the signature "bite" and mouthfeel. Simultaneously, advances in packaging—from glass bottles to aluminum cans with polymer linings and PET bottles—are critical for preventing gas leakage and protecting the delicate flavour profile from light and air.

Summary Table

Ingredient	Historical Role	Modern Role & Technological Link	Main Function
Coca Leaf Extract	Source of cocaine alkaloids for stimulant effect.	Decocainized extract used for flavour, produced via advanced chemical separation to remove alkaloids. ("Merchandise 7X" component)	Contributes subtle herbal/bitter notes; preserves historical brand identity.
Caffeine (Kola Nut)	Natural stimulant from whole kola nut infusions.	Refined, purified caffeine added externally. Sourced globally and dosed with high precision for consistency.	Provides mild stimulation, enhances alertness, and contributes to the overall flavour profile.
Sweeteners	Primarily cane sugar for sweetness.	Sucrose or HFCS, depending on region. HFCS is produced via enzymatic conversion of corn starch, lowering costs.	Drives sweetness, texture (mouthfeel), and caloric content. The key driver of taste appeal.
Acids & Stabilizers	(Not specified in early formulas)	Phosphoric acid for tartness and preservation (pH control). Advanced carbonation and packaging technologies for stability.	Ensures product safety, extends shelf life, and provides the signature "bite" or tang.
Diet Sweeteners	N/A	Artificial (Aspartame, etc.) or natural (Stevia) non-nutritive sweeteners developed through chemical synthesis and extraction technologies.	Enables low/zero-calorie product lines (e.g., Diet Coke, Coke Zero) to meet health-conscious demands.

Health Benefits and Safety Considerations of Diet Coke and Coke Zero

Why Do People Choose Diet or Zero Sugar Coke?

Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Zero Sugar are popular sugar-free, low-calorie alternatives to regular Coca-Cola. They are sweetened with non-nutritive artificial sweeteners instead of sugar, so you get the familiar cola taste without the sugar or calories. Many people prefer Diet Coke or Coke Zero over the original Coca-Cola for several health-related reasons, particularly regarding calorie intake, blood sugar impact, and dental health:

• Lower Calorie Intake: A 500 mL bottle of regular Coca-Cola contains about 200 Calories and roughly 55 grams of sugar (about 13 teaspoons). In contrast, Diet Coke and Coke Zero have virtually no calories or sugar per serving. By switching to the diet or zero-sugar versions, people can enjoy a soda without significantly boosting their daily calorie intake. Cutting out excess 'liquid calories' from sugary drinks can help with weight management. Consistently consuming more calories than you burn is a known risk factor for overweight, obesity, and related metabolic issues.
• Blood Sugar and Diabetes: Regular Coke’s high sugar content can cause a rapid spike in blood glucose and insulin. Because they contain no sugar, Diet Coke and Coke Zero do not raise blood glucose in the same way. This makes them attractive to people who need to control their blood sugar levels, such as those with diabetes or insulin resistance. Diets high in added sugars are linked to a greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes, while replacing them with diet drinks may help prevent those spikes.
• Dental Health: The sugar in regular soda promotes tooth decay. Oral bacteria feed on sugars and produce acids that erode tooth enamel. Diet Coke and Coke Zero contain no sugar, so they eliminate this major driver of cavities. However, they’re still acidic and can cause enamel erosion over time, especially with frequent sipping. Using a straw, rinsing with water, and brushing teeth regularly can help minimize this risk.

Nutritional Comparison (per 500 mL)

Beverage	Calories	Sugar	Sweetener(s)	Caffeine
Coca-Cola Classic	~200 kcal	~55 g	Sugar (HFCS or sucrose)	~53 mg
Diet Coke	0 kcal	0 g	Aspartame	~46 mg
Coca-Cola Zero Sugar	0 kcal	0 g	Aspartame + Acesulfame K	~34 mg

While many people choose diet colas for the benefits above, it’s also important to consider the safety of the ingredients they contain.

Are the Ingredients in Coke Zero Safe?

Coke Zero has no sugar or calories, but it does contain artificial sweeteners, caffeine, acids, coloring, and preservatives. Most health agencies recognize these as safe when consumed in moderation.

• Aspartame and Acesulfame K: Aspartame breaks down into amino acids and methanol, which are also found in many natural foods. It is safe for most people but should be avoided by those with phenylketonuria (PKU). In 2023, the WHO classified it as “possibly carcinogenic” based on limited evidence, but only at extremely high intakes far beyond normal consumption. Health authorities including the FDA and Health Canada continue to consider it safe at current intake levels. Acesulfame K, which is often used alongside aspartame, has also been studied and found safe in moderate amounts.
• Caffeine: One can of Coke Zero has about 34 mg of caffeine, which is less than coffee but enough to act as a mild stimulant. Caffeine can boost alertness and performance, but too much may lead to anxiety, insomnia, or rapid heartbeat, especially in children or sensitive individuals. Most adults can safely consume up to 400 mg of caffeine daily.
• Other Ingredients:
  • Phosphoric acid gives Coke Zero its tang but may contribute to enamel erosion or affect calcium balance in the body if consumed in excess.
  • Caramel color may contain trace amounts of 4-MEI, which raised cancer concerns in animal studies. However, Coke has since reformulated to lower 4-MEI levels, and regulators consider it safe.
  • Potassium benzoate is a preservative. It is generally safe unless combined with vitamin C, which can form benzene, though this is not the case in Coke Zero.
  • Natural flavours are tiny quantities of flavour extracts, typically plant-based and approved for food use. They are considered safe unless someone has a rare allergy.

Bezoars and an Unexpected Medical Use

Bezoars are hard masses that can form in the stomach, typically made of hair or plant fiber. Historically, they were believed to be antidotes to poison, but that’s long been disproven. Interestingly, doctors now sometimes use Coca-Cola (including Coke Zero) to dissolve these masses due to its acidity. This treatment can sometimes prevent the need for surgery. While not a first-line treatment, this use of Coca-Cola is occasionally considered in specific medical settings under supervision.

In moderation, Coke Zero can be a sugar-free alternative, but it's still important to stay informed about what you’re drinking.

Exam question

Question:

Most diet soft drinks in Canada now use a combination of aspartame and Acesulfame-K. If a product contains aspartame, what labeling requirements must appear on the packaging? (Select all that apply)

a. The label must say "contains Aspartame," either on its own or along with other sweeteners

b. Aspartame must be listed in the ingredients

c. The label must show how much aspartame is in a serving (in milligrams)

d. There must be a note saying "contains phenylalanine"

Answer:

a, b, c, d

Explanation:

We decided to include this question because our project focused on Coke Zero, which uses aspartame as a non-nutritive sweetener. This came up in class too, especially when talking about who should avoid aspartame and how it’s labeled. While aspartame is generally safe and can be helpful for people with diabetes, it’s not safe for individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare genetic disorder that makes it hard to process phenylalanine, one of the components of aspartame.

To protect those individuals, food products that contain aspartame must follow specific labeling rules in Canada. These include:

• Listing aspartame in the ingredients

• Stating how much aspartame is in each serving (in mg)

• Including a notice that the product contains aspartame

• Mentioning that aspartame contains phenylalanine

This question connects well with both our project and course content. It’s a good reminder of how food regulations are there to keep people safe, especially those with specific health conditions. We think it’s important for everyone in FNH 200 to be familiar with these kinds of labeling rules because they show how food science, safety, and public health all come together.

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