Course:FNH200/Projects/2025/Beef

History of Beef

Beef has played a central role in human diets and cultures for thousands of years. The domestication of cattle is believed to have started around 10,000 years ago in regions that are now parts of the Middle East and South Asia. Early civilizations, like the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, raised cattle for meat, milk, hides, and labour. Over time, both farming and the importance of beef spread.

Currently Recognized Breeds By The Canadian Beef Breeds Council

Canadian Beef Cuts

In ancient Rome and Greece, beef was often reserved for special occasions or sacrifices, whereas parts of India viewed cattle as sacred, protecting them rather than eating. During the Middle Ages in Europe, beef became more common, especially among wealthier classes who could afford to raise and feed cattle.

Colonization of the Americas brought cattle overseas, and beef production expanded rapidly. In the 1800s, the rise of industrial agriculture and refrigeration allowed beef to become a staple in many Western diets. Today, beef is a global industry, its history being deeply tied to regional traditions, cultural beliefs, and technological progress.

Production

The beef sector in Canada’s livestock industry includes over 11 million cattle and calves on more than 60,000 farms and feedlots. Nutritious and well-balanced diets allow the Canadian beef industry to contribute approximately $21.8 billion annually to the gross domestic product.

To meet nutritional requirements for maintenance, growth, and reproduction, cattle feed contains an array of forages, grains, oilseeds, and by-products, varying amounts depending on costs and availability. Adequate intake of clean water is essential for the physiological regulation and animal performance of cows.

Six natural and synthetic hormonal growth promoters are permitted in Canada for use in beef cattle only and are administered via implants or feed. The use of growth promotants improves feed efficiency, increases lean tissue growth, and lowers greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, Canadian farms require less land, cattle, and supplies without compromising the quantity and quality of beef or driving up retail prices.

Packaging

Canadian beef is packaged primarily using plastic or paper. Specific types of plastic packaging vary depending on the cut of meat and its intended shelf life. Three main types of packaging are case-ready modified atmosphere, vacuum packaging, and butcher paper wrapping.

Plastic packaging, including vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), is the most common method used to package beef. MAP results in a shorter shelf life than vacuum packaging because the meat is exposed to an oxygen-rich atmosphere to maintain the fresh red colour that appeals to customers. This sealed atmosphere also contains carbon dioxide, which helps decrease the growth of spoilage bacteria. In contrast, vacuum packaging uses plastic pouches to block moisture, gas, and microorganisms; the vacuum machine removes the air to create an oxygen-free environment. This oxygen-free environment significantly increases shelf life, but results in dark purple-brown coloured beef.

Fresh beef from butchers and grocery stores is wrapped in butcher paper, a method commonly used in the 1800s-1900s. The shelf life of paper-wrapped beef is shorter than that of MAP since it lacks any preservation methods. This open system makes the beef vulnerable to bacteria and oxidation, increasing the rate of spoilage.

Under the Food and Drug Regulations, prepackaged meat products must have all ingredients, components, and allergens declared on their labels. The Safe Food for Canadians Regulations require that meat products that are not prepackaged but traded across provinces, imported, or exported list the ingredients and components on their labels. A beef grade stamp should also be clearly labelled on the package. Canadian meat product labels have specific rules for meat with a shelf life of 90 days or less; a "Best Before" date and storage instructions are required on the packaging. Certain shelf-stable products, such as commercially sterile canned goods or dry or acidic meats, do not need these instructions.

Preservation

Cold preservation is one of the most widely used methods for extending the shelf life of meat, ranging from days to several months, depending on the technique. By lowering the temperature, the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms can be significantly slowed or halted, especially below −9.5°C. However, microbial activity can resume upon thawing, which is why proper cooking remains essential. This paper compares chilling, superchilling, and freezing based on their impact on beef quality, specifically discolouration, drip loss, and freshness.

Chilling maintains meat at temperatures between 0°C and 4°C. While it slows enzymatic and microbial activity, psychotrophic organisms may still grow. Chilling is convenient and commonly used for short-term storage (up to 14 days). However, it often results in greater discoloration and drip loss compared to other methods, due to oxygen exposure and moisture release during storage.

Superchilling involves lowering the product’s temperature just below its initial freezing point (typically between −1°C and −2.8°C) without forming ice crystals. This method extends shelf life up to one month while better preserving the meat’s colour, texture, and overall freshness compared to chilling and freezing . Drip loss is reduced, though some evaporation may occur due to air circulation within the storage unit.

Freezing stores meat below −18°C, effectively halting microbial growth. However, slow freezing results in larger ice crystal formation, damaging muscle structure and leading to greater drip loss and discoloration. In contrast, rapid freezing produces smaller crystals, better preserving quality over extended periods.

In conclusion, each method offers different benefits: superchilling maintains superior freshness, freezing is optimal for long-term storage, and chilling remains the most accessible option, albeit with reduced quality over time.

Regulations and Safety

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for inspecting cattle establishments for exporting and sale. They oversee facilities, personnel, processes, animal health and welfare, slaughter processes, raw and ready-to-eat beef processing, sampling, and testing. The CFIA also reviews written procedures and tests for potential contaminants in the production line.

In 2007, Canada introduced a feed ban, prohibiting the inclusion of specified risk material (SRM) in cattle feed or food due to potential contamination by Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). SRM includes the skull, brain, eyes, tonsils, spinal cord, and vertebral column (with some exceptions) of cattle over 30 months, and the distal ileum of all cattle. Following regulations, those parts of cattle cannot be used for sale or export and must be destroyed or removed. The World Organization for Animal Health has recognized Canadian cattle as “negligible risk” status for BSE, allowing its export to countries with stricter regulations (Australia, South Korea, and the EU).

For animal and contaminant tracking purposes, each cattle must have an RFID ear tag approved by the Canadian Cattle Identification Agency before leaving the farm. If the CFIA identifies a health issue, the specific herd of origin can be traced by each unique tag.

After CFIA inspection, voluntary Canadian beef grading is completed by certified graders on quality and yield. Packaged beef can be labelled Canada A, AA, AAA, Canada Prime, or ungraded. Ungraded beef is safe to consume, but the quality is unknown from a sales perspective.

Safety-wise, ground beef must be cooked to 71°C to eliminate pathogens, like E. coli, whereas whole cut beef is safe to consume at 63°C. Contaminants may mix in when cutting ground beef in production; however, bacteria live only on the outside of whole cut beef, making it safer to consume at a lower temperature. Restaurants in BC are legally prohibited from serving medium-rare burgers due to potential bacteria surviving the cooking process.

Final Exam Question

Question: What must be clearly labelled on the packaging of imported raw beef that has a shelf life of 90 days or less? (Select all that apply)

1. farm location
2. best before date
3. age of cattle
4. list of ingredients
5. beef grade stamp

Correct Answer(s): 2. best before date, 4. list of ingredients, 5. beef grade stamp

Explanation:

1. The location of the specific farm that the beef cattle was raised at is not relevant information that must be stated on the packaging; however, the country of origin should be clearly stated in both official languages.
2. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) site, the Food and Drug Regulations (FDR) state that "prepackaged meat products with a durable life of 90 days or less are required to be labelled with date markings," clearly labelling the best before date in both English and French.
3. Lesson 4.3 Food Labelling Requirements: the age of the beef cattle is not required information by the CFIA.
4. The Safe Food for Canadians Regulations (SFCR) require a list of ingredients and components on the labels of beef that is traded across provinces, either exported or imported. requirements of the FDR with respect to declaration of ingredients, components and allergens apply to the labels of prepackaged meat products
5. Lesson 4.5 Food Grades Standards: the CFIA, SFCR, and Canadian Beef Grading Agency are involved with the labelling of beef grades on packaging. The CFIA site states that "a grade stamp must appear in red ink when marked on graded beef."

Our question should be on the final exam because it is relevant to the content we learned in FNH 200, specifically Lesson 04 regarding food standards, regulations, and labelling. It uses information from sources linked in the course content, such as the CFIA site and mentions other official sources such as the FDR and SFCR.