Course:FNH200/2014w Team09 Beer

From UBC Wiki

Beer

Dating back to historic times, wheats have been known to ferment to produce an intoxicating effect on the human body. In the modern age, creating beer has become a science, enabling us to produce a variety of beverages that have a unique or enhanced flavour. Beer progressively became more popular as time went on and has become one of the most widely accepted alcoholic beverages for many social occasions. The majority of beer consists of mainly water, grains (which include fermentable sugars), hops and yeast. Each ingredient contributes to the overall flavour and texture of the beer. Furthermore, each step in the beer-making process has been perfected to produce the desired product. The mixture (also known as wort, which includes a variety of sugars produced from the mashing of grains and water[1]) undergoes a fermentation process to produce the alcohol content and carbonation, creating beer. By manipulating the ingredients, the resulting beer can range from light to dark and sweet to bitter. In present-day, beer can be produced by either home-brewing or commercial brewing.

Figure 1. Team 9's first homebrewed beer

In this project, we will be investigating the process of homebrewing, the importance of the specified ingredients used in beer, and the steps and their functions in the process of creating and preserving beer. Furthermore, we also examine the industry requirements in labelling and definitions of beer.

Homebrewing

Homebrewing is the process of creating one’s own beer. Though there is usually no monetary benefit to home brewing versus buying beer at a liquor store,[2] it is a common hobby that offers many benefits. Home brewing allows the individual to identify all the ingredients in their beers, and they can construct their beverage based on their own personal preferences. The process of home brewing can take three weeks or more, depending on the type of beer and its alcohol content.[3] While most commercially produced beers are pasteurized to extend the shelf life, homebrewed beer is not pasteurized and therefore has a shorter life span.[2]

For our project, we decided to try out the process for ourselves and homebrewed 23 litres of Golden Honey Ale.

Ingredients

There are four main ingredients when it comes to beer. Infusing different herbs, spices, fruits, or other plants allows for unlimited possibilities for one to enhance the flavour profile, aroma, and appearance of beer. However, the four fundamental ingredients are water, grains, hops, and yeast.

Water

Water is the main component of beer and contributes to over 95% of the product.[4][5] Fundamentally, breweries stress the purity and originality of their water content. The mineral content and the pH-level are factors of brewing water that are of grave importance. High sulphate levels within the water are what accentuate the bitter flavours of beer.[4]

In modern brewing, it is practiced to initially strip all minerals out of water then add precise measurements of wanted minerals afterwards to produce better beer.[5]

When we brewed our beer, we did not take any steps to demineralize the water. Rather, we used tap water, which can contain varying levels of calcium, magnesium, and other minerals.

Grains

Figure 2. Barley and Hops[6]

Grains contain sugars that are fermented by yeast to produce the alcohol content and carbonation of beer.[4][5] Grains provide essential nutrients needed for yeasts to reproduce, and they are the major contributors of the resulting flavour, aroma, and color.[5] The main grain used in beer production is barley (specifically malted barley), while other commonly used grains are wheat, oat, corn, rice, spelt, or rye. The grains used for the production of golden honey ale were: 7.5lbs of pale malt liquid extract, 1lbs vienna malt, 1lbs wheat malt, 0.5 lbs of honey malt and 0.75lbs of carahell malt. These grains are different than the most common grains used in beer production because when combined, they contribute to the honey profile of the beer so no real honey is needed.

Grain is malted through a natural conversion process until it is usable to create beer. The enzymes released by the grains during malting break down complex sugars (starches) that are indigestible to the yeast.[4] Initially, the grains are soaked in water for several days and then, once drained, are held at 15.5°C for five days to promote germination.[7] However, when we homebrewed, the grains were soaked in hot water for forty-five minutes and then drained. Due to time constraints, the germination step was skipped.

Hops

Figure 3. Iso-α-acids[8]

Hops are a flower from the hemp family (Cannabaceae), which are used in beer.[9] Hops contain acids that give beer its distinct bitter taste, and oils that contribute to its flavour and aroma.[9] The “hoppy” aroma in beer is credited to the complex sensory of the many different volatile compounds at low concentrations.[9]

Hop compounds called iso-α-acids have antibacterial activity against spoilage bacteria.[10] Sakamoto and Konings (2003) state that hop resistance to lactic acid bacteria is critical in determining the bacteria’s presence in beer.[10] They found that iso-α-acids “dissipate the pH gradient across the cytoplasmic membrane and reduce the proton motive force”, thus resulting in the bacterial cell death.[10] De Keukeleire (2000) supports this claim, stating that the two prenyl groups (Figure 3) in these α-acids strongly inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria.[10] Hops can also contribute up to one third of the polyphenols (alcohol) in beer,[10] so decreasing hop content is one of the different methods in the production of light beer.

In our Golden Honey Ale, we used 0.75 oz of Belma Hops, 1.0 oz Mt. Hood Hops, and 1.0 oz Willamette Hops.

Yeasts

Figure 4. Yeast Cells[11]

Yeasts metabolize simple sugars in grains to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide such as in the production of beer from malt.[4][5][7][12] Yeasts are separated into two main categories: lager yeast and ale yeast.[4][5]

Lager yeasts are bottom fermenting. This means that when fermenting, the yeast will be found at the bottom of the container in which it is held. This type of yeast ferments at cooler temperatures, ranging around 10° C.[4][5][7] Unlike ale yeasts, lager yeasts perform at a much slower and efficient rate, resulting in a cleaner tasting beer.

Ale yeasts are top fermenting,[7] meaning they rise near to the top of the beer during fermentation. Ale yeast ferments at warmer temperatures (above 20°C) which do not allow the yeast to ferment efficiently.[4][5][7] During fermentation, ale yeasts release large amounts of esters and phenols which results in a fruity and spicy flavour.[4][5] The yeast used in the production of the Golden Honey Ale was English ale yeast.

Harvesting
The quality of harvested yeast is affected by various factors, such as genetics, temperature, and oxygen levels.

Firstly, genetic mutations can occur in populations of yeast, and can occur if harvesting methods are not consistent.[13] If yeast cells start to flocculate (come together) early, then they will have a greater combined mass and sink to the bottom of the growing tank.[13] Conversely, if they flocculate later, then they will have a smaller combined mass and float to the top of the growing tank.[13] Ideally, the yeast should be harvested near the middle of these yeast beds to ensure consistent genetic populations and therefore consistent fermentation characteristics.[13]

High temperatures can increase the death rate of yeast cells, which is a problem often encountered when using conical fermenters (fermenters that add heat at the bottom of the fermenter to assist in the fermentation process).[14] This heat has the potential to over-heat the yeast slurry at the bottom, causing the yeast slurry to rise to the middle of the fermenter and remain there with the consistent addition of heated yeast.[14] When the fermentation process is done, brewers will chill the beer/yeast and immediately harvest the yeast to protect its lifespan.[14] Before the yeast is even used, the yeast should be kept in a cool place to avoid temperature degradation.

Lastly, oxygen exposure causes a rapid depletion in the glycogen stores of the yeast.[15] Since the yeast is living, these glycogen stores are required during storage for metabolic activities.[15] Large industrial storage containers/vessels are pumped with carbon dioxide to minimize oxygen exposure,[13] and at home, one should use an air-tight seal if opening the yeast.

Storage
Once harvested, the liquid yeasts need to be stored properly to maintain their viability (percentage of living cells) and vitality (the yeast cell’s ability of fermenting).[15][16] The shelf life of dry yeast is more than one year, whereas liquid yeast can only be stored for less than two weeks.[14][17] In storage, the yeasts consume glycogen that are stored in reserves which can lead to a potential risk of degradation to the cell's walls and decrease in the cell’s ability to take in nutrition.[13][14] Lowering the temperature can slow the metabolism rate of yeast cells, therefore lowering their glycogen consumption rate.[15][14][17] The ideal temperature for storing yeast is between 1°C and 4°C.[15][14][17] Brewers can also store yeasts under a 3 to 4 inch low alcohol and low hop beer layer to reduce the stress for yeast cells.[13]

Preservatives

Figure 5. L-ascorbic acid and erythorbic acid skeleton[18]

Only preservatives found in Class I and Class II of the Canadian Food and Drug Regulations are allowed for use in beer.[19]There are 13 preservatives in Class I and 27 in Class II. However, the most commonly used preservatives in beer are Ascorbic Acid (Class I), Erythorbic Acid (Class I), Calcium Ascorbate (Class I) Sodium Ascorbate (Class I), and Sulphurous Acid (Class II).

Ascorbic acid (L-ascorbic acid, or more commonly known as vitamin C) is an antioxidant agent, flavour enhancer, and is used to control the oxygen level of the beer.[20] It is a stable compound and therefore does not result in a change of aroma or taste in the beer.[20] Erythorbic acid, also known as S-ascorbic acid, is a stereoisomer of vitamin C and is also an antioxidant. Erythorbic acid can be used in replacement of vitamin C as an antioxidant, though the compounds differ in biological activity and therefore S-ascorbic acid does not have flavour enhancing properties that L-ascorbic acid does.

Very little research has been done on the other preservatives and their effect in beer, however they are all approved for use in Canada.

We did not add any preservatives to our Golden Honey Ale.

pH

The acidity level of beer varies between 3.7 to 4.1, which is about the same level as the pH of wine.[21][22] The acidity in beer is formed as a result of the fermentation process.[21] For name-brand beer, the pH should not vary by more than 0.15 since variation in beer pH reflects inconsistency in the fermentation process.[21] Also, cask conditioned beer (unfiltered and unpasteurized beer) should maintain pH levels inside the range of 3.7 to 4.1, otherwise they will encounter flavour problems. As well, at high pH levels, cask-conditioned beer is prone to infection by microorganisms.[21]

The pH of our Golden Honey Ale was approximately 5.0.

Process of Creating Beer

Initially, the malted grains are soaked in water ranging from 63°C to 68°C for about 30 to 60 minutes. Soaking in the water allows the malted grains to release the sugars, which the yeasts will digest. Once the malted grains have finished steeping, the grains (solids) are strained out, leaving only the wort (liquid containing fermentable sugars and water). Hops are added to the wort to provide the beer with a bitter taste and aroma. After boiling the hops in the wort for about 60 minutes, the wort is extracted (hops and any solids are filtered out) and then cooled for the yeasts to be added. The yeasts begin to ferment the wort to produce the alcoholic, carbonated beverage we know today. Our Golden Honey Ale went through two stages of fermentation.

Fermentation

Fermentation is the process where the glucose in the unfermented beer, also known as wort, is converted by yeast into the alcoholic and carbonation properties of beer. Fermentation is subcategorized into two stages: primary fermentation, secondary fermentation/conditioning.

Primary Fermentation
The primary stage of fermentation is initialized once the yeast is introduced into a cooled, aerated wort.[23][24][25][26] Yeasts try to maximize the depletion of useable oxygen. Once the majority of the oxygen is depleted, the yeast switches into an anaerobic phase where it reduces the majority of the wort sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide.[24] Primary fermentation typically takes a week to process. [23][24][25][26]

Secondary Fermentation/Conditioning
Secondary fermentation occurs as soon as the rate of fermentation decreases and the majority of wort sugars are converted. Yeasts start forming into clumps and settle at the bottom of the fermenter.[26] Glycogen is stored in yeasts for future reproduction and the yeasts enter a dormant state.
Ales undergo approximately two to three weeks of conditioning and typically lagers have longer conditioning times.[24] Temperatures between 0°C to -3°C are desired.[23][24][26] During conditioning, yeasts continue to flocculate and settle. Therefore the beer become clearer and easier to pour. Exposure to oxygen during this process is especially important towards the final quality of the beer.[23][24] The beer is transferred to another container to prevent unwanted flavours and harmful components from the dormant yeasts and remaining debris.

Carbonation

Carbonation is the process of injecting carbon dioxide into liquids and is what is used to create beer's refreshing fizz of beer as well as to enhance its aroma and flavor.[27] There are two ways to carbonate beer, natural and forced carbonation.[27] In both processes, beer and carbon dioxide are sealed inside a container under pressure, allowing the beer to absorb the carbon dioxide and become bubbly.

Natural carbonation, also known as secondary fermentation, comes from the natural fermentation process where yeast digests sugars in the beer,[28] to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. The brewer seals the beer in a container with the remaining carbon dioxide; enough to saturate the liquid and carbonate the beer.[28] This is how natural carbonation gives fizziness to the beer.

Forced carbonation allows beer to become fully fermented and then carbon dioxide is pumped into the container afterwards.[27] The beer is sealed with carbon dioxide in a container under pressure so the liquid can absorb the carbon dioxide and become “carbonated”.[27] Forced carbonation allows brewers to achieve the desired level of carbon dioxide in beer by adjusting the temperature and pressure, as shown in the table below.[29][30]


Table 1: Chart showing the relationship between temperature and pressure affecting levels of carbon dioxide in beer Volumes of carb.png

Storage Conditions and Spoilage of Beer

Beer should be stored in a cool and dark place, as most beer that is exposed to high temperatures and direct sunlight will reduce in flavor.[31] An ideal storage temperature is between 34 to 38°F, or 1 to 3°C.[31] Even in these conditions, some draft beers may require a durable life date even if they have a durable life date of 90 days or less.[32] Beer spoilage bacteria capable of drastically multiplying during improper storage include lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus lindneri and Pediococcus damnosus, and gram-negative bacteria such as Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus, Pectinatus frisingensis and Megasphaera cerevisiae.[33] These bacteria alter the turbidity, acidity, and smell of beer.[33] Little research has been done on the disease-causing bacteria found in beer.[33]

If one is to homebrew and requires the storage of hops, it is highly recommended to store them in the freezer between -5 to 30°F, or -21 to -1°C.[34] Hops will degrade four times as fast at 75°F than at freezer temperature. [34] Hops, the main contributor to the bitterness of beer, have an exponential relationship between temperature and bitterness: every 27°F of lowered temperature reduces bitterness by half.[34]

Other than temperature, light and oxygen exposure play a role in the proper storage of hops.[34] Like beer, hops are susceptible to flavor breakdown to light, and thus should be stored in dark places.[34] An air-tight jar will prevent oxidized alpha acids to lose their bitterness and give off a “cheesy” aroma.[34] Plastic and poly bags are very permeable to air and are the worst materials to use when storing hops.[34] Depending on the variety of hop, most hops last for several years if properly stored.

Food Standards and Regulation of Beer

In the Food and Drug Regulations of Canada, beer is found under division two (alcoholic beverages). It is defined as a mixture of “barley or wheat malt” as well as “hops or hop extract” in water and is the “product of alcoholic fermentation by yeast.”[35] Beer also must be brewed to a point where it has acquired an “aroma, taste, and character” that is familiar of beer.[35] The regulations also introduce a list of 23 possible ingredients (or groups of ingredients) that may be added to improve the quality of the beverage.

Labeling Requirements

The Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations requires all beer labels to contain the common name of the food, net quantity of the food, name and address of the person responsible for the product, list of ingredients, and bilingual labelling.[36] Additionally, because beer is an alcoholic beverage, the percent alcohol content must also be included on the label.[36]

The mandatory common name for beers is dependant on its percent alcohol content.[37] The table below describes the naming process for the different categorizations of beer:[37]


Table 2: Common names dependent on alcohol percentage

Team9 LabellingRequirements.png

Reflection

Beer can be extremely complicated and there are infinite possibilities in terms of combinations with ingredients. Though factory-brewed beers have a specific recipe, homebrewers are able to combine tastes they enjoy and discover new flavours. Each ingredient must be hand-picked and experimented to discover a personal preference. Learning about the different available grains, whether they’re typically used for homebrewing or not, is an added bonus. Furthermore, the process of homebrewing and the storage of ingredients can be very complicated (depending on the recipe used), and this can lead to variations in flavour, texture and aroma when using the same recipe.

As a group, we learned that the best way to examine the process of homebrewing was to simply homebrew ourselves. Though there are a plethora of websites and books that describe homebrewing, many of our questions about the process were solved when we personally combined and fermented the raw materials to produce beer. Our experiences homebrewing has expanded our interests in homemade alcohol and made the prospect of wine-making a realistic and interesting possibility.

Perhaps the most rewarding experience, like whenever one makes his/her own food, is that we know where the food came from and how the beer was processed. It is rewarding to know that by purchasing at Centennial Homebrewing Supplies, we supported local companies, which has benefits to the local economy and to environmental sustainability. We know that our ingredients were fresh, our equipment was sterilized, and every step of the process was done with love.

This was a simple, fun, and flavorful experience and we are excited to homebrew more in the future.

Question

What is/are the purpose(s) of yeast to fermenting beer?
a) Makes the beer fizzy by introducing carbon dioxide (carbonated)
b) Introduces the alcoholic properties of beer
c) Adds the distinct bitterness to the beer
d) a & b
e) a, b, & c

Answer: d

References

  1. ↑ Martin, E., & Hine, R. (2008). Dictionary of biology (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Langford, Signe. (2015). How to Brew Your own Beer. Canadian Living. Retrieved March 29th, 2015 from: http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cooking_school/how_to_brew_your_own_beer.php.
  3. ↑ Quality Wine and Ale Supply, LLC. (2014). How Long Does it Take to Brew Your own Beer?. Beer Brewing Information. Retrieved March 29th, 2015 from: http://www.homebrewit.com/blog/2010/07/01/how-long-does-it-take-to-brew-your-own-beer/.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Palmer, J. (2015). How to Brew. Retrieved March 19, 2015, from http://www.howtobrew.com.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Agnew, M. (2008). What is Beer - The Basics. Retrieved March 19, 2015, from http://www.aperfectpint.net/What%20is%20Beer%20-%20The%20Basics.pdf.
  6. ↑ Smith, B. (2013) Retrieved March 30, 2015 from http://beersmith.com/blog/2013/09/06/cereal-mash-steps-for-all-grain-beer-brewing/.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Nice, K. (2000, December 12). How Beer Works - What’s in Beer. Retrieved March 19, 2015, from http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/beer1.htm.
  8. ↑ De Keukeleire, D. (2000). Fundamentals of beer and hop chemistry. Retrieved March 17, 2015 from http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-40422000000100019.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Sakamoto, K., & Konings, W. N. (2003). Beer spoilage bacteria and hop resistance. International journal of food microbiology, 89(2), 105-124.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 De Keukeleire, D. (2000). Fundamentals of beer and hop chemistry. Quimica nova, 23(1), 108-112.
  11. ↑ GCSE Science Practicals. (2001) Retrieved March 30, 2015 from http://scienceteacher.org.uk/?page_id=264
  12. ↑ Preedy, V. (2009). Beer in health and disease prevention. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Keft-Losdon, J. (2015) Yeast harvesting/Re-pitch. Retrieved March 23, 2015 from https://www.wyeastlab.com/com-yeast-harvest.cfm.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 White, C. (2014) Yeast storage and maintenance. Retrieved March 23, 2015 from http://www.whitelabs.com/beer/yeast-storage-and-maintenance-0.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Maca, W (2011) Yeast storage and fermentation: effects on viability and flavor production. Retrieved March 20, 2015 from http://www.mbaa.com/districts/michigan/events/documents/2011_01_14yeaststoragefermentation.pdf.
  16. ↑ Bamforth, C. W. (2003) Beer : Tap into the Art and Science of Brewing(pp:149). Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Smith, B. (2014) Storing your beer brewing hops. grains and yeasts. Retrieved March 23, 2015 from http://beersmith.com/blog/2014/02/08/storing-your-beer-brewing-hops-grains-and-yeast/.
  18. ↑ Retrieved March 30, 2015 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ascorbic-acid-vs-erythorbic-acid-2D-skeletal.png
  19. ↑ Health Canada. (2014) List of permitted preservatives(Lists of permitted food additives). Retrieved March 23, 2015 from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/list/11-preserv-conserv-eng.php
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Bauernfeind, J. C., & Pinkert, D. M. ( 1970) . Food processing with added ascorbic acid. Advances in food research, 18, 219-304.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Murphy & Son Ltd. (2012, January 1). Serving the Brewing & Food Industries. Retrieved March 30, 2015, from http://www.murphyandson.co.uk/murphyandson/fao_topic20.html.
  22. ↑ Helmenstine, A. (2014, November 28). PH of Common Chemicals. Retrieved March 20, 2015, from http://chemistry.about.com/od/acidsbases/a/phtable.htm.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Nice, K. (2000, December 12). How Beer Works - Fermentation. Retrieved March 20, 2015 from http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/beer4.htm.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 Keft-Losdon, J. (2015). Fermentation. Retrieved March 20, 2015 from https://www.wyeastlab.com/he_b_fermentation.cfm.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Williams, R. P. (1965, September 21). Continuous Fermentation Process for Beer Production. Retrieved March 20, 2015 from http://www.google.com/patents/US3207606.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Alba-Lois, L. (2010) Yeast Fermentation and the Making of Beer and Wine. Retrieved March 20, 2015 from http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/yeast-fermentation-and-the-making-of-beer-14372813.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Eddings, B. (n.d.). How Beer Is Carbonated and Why Is Beer Fizzy? Retrieved March 21, 2015, from http://beer.about.com/od/commercialbeers/f/fizz.htm.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Goldammer, T. (2008). Beer Carbonation. In The Brewers' Handbook (Second ed.). Clifton, Va.: Apex.
  29. ↑ Craft Beermaking Artificial Carbonation | Craft Beermaking | RJS Craft Beermaking. (n.d.). Retrieved March 21, 2015, from http://www.rjscraftwinemaking.com/Winemaking-101/Craft-Beermaking/Carbonation.
  30. ↑ Clayson, A. (n.d.). Force Carbonating your Homebrew. Retrieved March 21, 2015, from http://www.homebrew.com/articles/article12018101.shtml.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 The Beer Store. (2015). Beer Storage. Retrieved March 30th, 2015 from http://www.thebeerstore.ca/draught-services/maintenance-tips/beer-storage.
  32. ↑ Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (2014). Labeling Requirements for Alcohol – Durable Life Date. Food Labeling for Industry. Retrieved March 30th 2015 from: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/alcohol/eng/1392909001375/1392909133296?chap=9.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Sakamoto, K., & Konings, W. N. (2003). Beer spoilage bacteria and hop resistance. International journal of food microbiology, 89(2), 105-124.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 Smith, Brad. (2008). Brewing Hops Storage: Preserving Precious Hops. BeerSmith Home Brewing Blog. Retrieved March 30th from: http://beersmith.com/blog/2008/04/15/brewing-hops-storage-preserving-precious-hops/.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Government of Canada. (2015). Beer - Food and Drug Regulations. Retrieved Mar 29th 2015 from: http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.%2C_c._870/page-65.html#h-63.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Chan, Judy. (2015). Food Standards, Regulations, and Guides - Food Additives (online notes). Retrieved March 28th 2015 from: http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_04.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Government of Canada. (2014). Labelling Requirements for Alcohol - Common Name. Retrieved Mar 30th 2015 from: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/alcohol/eng/1392909001375/1392909133296?chap=2#s1c2.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:FNH200/2014w_Team09_Beer&oldid=580775"