Course:FNH200/2011w Team23 Coffee

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Popular coffee chain, Starbucks Source

It is an undeniable fact that Canada is a caffeinated nation. According to the Coffee Association of Canada (2003)[1] an estimated 63% of Canadian adults consume coffee on a daily basis, making it a primary beverage choice as well as a staple of every Canadian street corner, food court, restaurant and kitchen. As a result of the high and constant demand for coffee, Canadian consumers have been presented with an unmatched accessibility and variety of coffee products. Whether one desires whole roasted, pre-ground, instant or decaffeinated, your every coffee wish is granted through a multi-dimensional system that begins with a bean, and ends conveniently in your cup. With an ever-expanding audience of coffee drinkers, Canadian coffee sales are far from slowing down. This has lead to recent amendments in nutritional labeling as well as an increasing awareness of where exactly the coffee we consume comes from—is it a place of fair trade? Are the beans organic? What preservatives should be expected and how does the storage process differ between products? This growing system encompasses everything from factory regulations, including methods of storage and packaging that promote the desirable aesthetic and aromatic characteristics of coffee, to the use—and possible associated risks—of various preservatives that ensure the shelf life of our precious beans. Here we seek to explore the variety of production, regulation, packaging and storage, as well as the growing desire for fair trade and organic coffee products that comprise the multi-faceted Canadian caffeine machine.


Whole Bean Coffee

Harvesting

Coffee Cherries

Prior to being brewed from their roasted form, coffee beans begin as the green seeds of a fruit called coffee cherries, which are grown in clusters on trees [2]. When the fruit reaches its ripened stage, usually denoted by a deep red colour, it is harvested either by strip picking or selective picking [2]. Strip picking utilizes either hand-picking or machine harvesting of the entire coffee cherry crop all at once, whereas selective picking involves manually picking only the ripened fruits for processing [2].

Processing

Following harvest, the green coffee beans can be processed using either a wet method or dry method [2].

Dry Method

The dry method simply entails spreading the harvested coffee cherries out in a 4-5 inch layer on a level area to sun dry, during which time the fruit is raked to ensure that the batch is evenly dry [3]. Alternatively, coffee beans may also be dried in a tumble drier [2].

Wet Method

Using the wet method, ripe coffee cherries are immediately submersed into a large tank of water after harvesting is completed and overripe and shriveled fruit is removed from the batch after floating to the surface [3]. The remaining fruit is stripped from the green coffee beans in a de-pulping machine and the beans then proceed into rotating cylindrical sieves to be sorted according to size [3]. Afterwards, the sorted beans are placed into separate tanks for various sizes and fermented to loosen the remaining pulp [3]. After 48 hours of fermenting, the green coffee beans are washed by tumbling down a series of waterways, further sorted according to size, and then held in drainage tanks until all the water has been removed [3]. Incidentally, this wet method is more expensive than the dry method and thus is typically used for the production of fine coffees [3]. Once the moisture content of the dried beans reaches 11%, the beans are stored in warehouses [2] or silos to await shipment [3].

Roasting

Coffee Bean Roaster

To begin the roasting process of the whole coffee beans, the green coffee beans are poured into a hopper where they are screened for debris, weighed, and transferred onto conveyor belts to be taken to storage hoppers [4]. A specified amount of green coffee beans are then placed into the roasting unit, which has been preheated to a desired temperature [5] typically between 200-250°C and roasted for a certain period of time, usually ranging from 0.75-45 minutes depending on the desired finished product [6]. The temperature of the roasting unit typically drops upon receiving the green coffee beans and can then be adjusted to create a particular roast[5]. During roasting, green coffee beans are tumbled in a current of hot gases inside a horizontal rotating drum of either an indirect roaster, in which the beans contact combustion gases, but not the burner flame, or a direct roaster, in which the beans contact both combustion gases and the burner flame [4]. The colour of the coffee beans changes from green to brown when internal bean temperatures reach 400°F and oils known as caffeol begin to emerge, a process termed pyrolysis, which produces the characteristic aroma and flavour of the coffee [2]. As the roasting progresses, the gases inside the beans eventually escape, causing the beans to burst and double in size, a phenomenon accompanied by an audible popping noise [5]. Once the coffee beans have reached their desired roasted stage, they are transferred onto a cooling tray [5], sprayed with water, and run through a de-stoner to remove any remaining debris [4]. Finally, the roasted beans are conveyed to another hopper to be dried and stabilized via equilibration, after which they can be ground [4]. It is important to note that the coffee beans are kept moving throughout the entire roasting process to prevent burning and that roasting typically takes place in importing countries so fresh coffee can reach consumers as quickly as possible [2]. The final product is smooth in texture and displays a consistent colour [5].

Pre-ground Coffee

Staling Rate of Coffee Source

Processing

The processing of pre-ground coffee is similar to that of whole-roasted coffee. The difference, as the name implies, is that pre-ground coffee is grinded after being roasted in whole. Manufacturers would mill the roasted coffee immediately because a shorter time contributes to a better final taste. Furthermore, some manufacturers have developed different coffee makers with different functions and grind coffee to specific fineness. Some markets would sell freshly-grinded coffee from the markets’ own grinding house since coffee is at its best around 12-24 hours and would turn stale after a day[7]. In addition, consumers are less likely to buy coffee after two weeks of roasting date[8].

Packaging

Pre Ground Coffee in Individual Coffee Filters

It is difficult to keep pre-ground coffee beans fresh because it stales quickly after it is ground[9]. In order to retain its aromatic and volatile qualities, pre-ground coffee must be hermetically sealed[10]. The most common ways to package pre-ground coffee is into impermeable plastic film, aluminum foil, or cans. The more expensively way of packaging is put individual servings of pre-ground coffee with chemicals in vacuum-sealed containers that attempt to replicate flavors freshly-ground coffee[11]. Sodium benzoate is a type of preservative that have been used in pre-ground coffee; however, the controversies are that sodium benzoate triggers allergies, skin rashes, and might lead to brain damage[12].

Various pre ground coffee products

Storage

Due to the volatile and aroma interaction with the environment, coffee should be stored isolated from air and moisture[9]. Glass and glazed ceramic have the best air- and moisture-proof seal; if it is stored in glass, then it should be place in dark locations[9]. Mylar or plastic bags with one-way valves function similarly to glass as long as they have an air-tight seal[9]. However, since metal and plastic are both reactive materials, they can impart strange flavors to the coffee[9]. Vacuum-sealing the coffee is the best way to store coffee while retaining its aroma and taste for a long time[9]. Vacuum-sealed coffee can keep its freshness up to five or six months[10]. Freezing is also a way to store coffee for a long period of time[10]. By combining the two methods, vacuum seal the coffee and stored it in the freezer can store up to two years[10]. It is better if the coffee is vacuum-sealed in small portion because breaking one vacuum would not disrupt the others[10]. Disputes are that subtle tastes in the coffee will be damaged; nevertheless, as long as the freezer-stored coffee is not repeated opened, the moisture would be less likely to condense onto the coffee granules and retain its flavor[10].

Instant Coffee

Nescafe Instant Coffee Products

Instant coffee is a product that allows consumers to make a product similar in taste to freshly brewed coffee without having to brew said fresh coffee. To do this, all one needs is hot water and instant coffee mix. This makes instant coffee very convenient for the consumer. However, the taste of instant coffee is not equivalent to freshly brewed coffee. The Japanese were the first to make a stable instant coffee product in the early 1900s [13]. Instant coffee has had one main update since the early 1900’s, in 1963 freeze-drying was introduced as a different dehydration method. Prior to freeze-drying, only spray-drying was used to dehydrate the coffee, both being different types of preservative methods [13]. Instant coffee can be stored on shelves for up to two years or more if processed and packaged properly [13].

Roasting

Instant coffee begins as every other coffee product does, as green coffee beans. The roasting of the beans is when coffee forms its volatile characteristic aromatic compounds [14].

The Beans

Many of the beans used for instant coffee are low quality [15]. This occurs because many of the subtle tastes and aromas of higher quality coffee beans are lost during the process of making instant coffee[15]. A chemistry professor that is also a coffee researcher from Seattle University says that some of the coffee beans used in instant coffee would not be allowed to be used in roasted coffee beans or ground coffee products[13]. Some producers of instant coffee use coffee beans that have been stripped from coffee plants whether they are ripe or not [13]. Unripe coffee beans add a bitter taste as well as a less developed aroma compared to ripe beans[13].

Grinding & Extrusion

The roasted coffee beans are then ground and used to make coffee[16]. The coffee is made by extrusion, also known as extraction[16]. This process involves water that is continuously boiled and sent up columns that can reach a temperature of 200 degrees Celsius[17]. The steam then condenses to hot water droplets that go through a filter where the ground coffee is held[17]. The coffee is then further concentrated to levels of 15-30% coffee by mass and is then either freeze-dried or spray-dried[18].

Dehydration

Spray drying is a type of dehydration that can only be used with liquids [19].

During spray-drying, small droplets go through a high velocity stream of warm air[19].Due to the size of the droplets of liquid, this method is fast, effective, and inexpensive.

Spray Drying Product

Spray drying equipment is not only designed to maximize drying rate, but to produce dry particles of uniform size and to prevent sticking of partially dry food particles to the walls of the spray driers[19]. In spray drying, the coffee liquid does not have air pockets left by water, and when the water evaporates out, so do any components that were in the liquid water of the concentrated coffee [19]. The newest method of dehydration is freeze-drying and can be used with solid or liquid foods[19]. During freeze-drying, the concentrated instant coffee is frozen and then split into many pieces [19].

Freeze Dried Instant Coffee Product

Freeze drying is based on sublimation, taking a solid and turning it into a gas without going through a liquid phase[19]. This allows for spaces where the frozen water was before being freeze-dried, which makes the rehydrated product high in quality[19]. More of the components of the coffee are kept because of the spaces left by the frozen water[19]. The spaces left by the frozen liquid can be rehydrated to produce a product more similar to the original freshly brewed coffee than the spray-dried instant coffee product [13].

Freeze-dried Vs. Spray-dried

People providing coffee advise generally say that freeze dried coffee is a better product than spray dried due to the difference in taste[20]. However, spray dried instant coffee is 35% cheaper to produce than freeze dried coffee[13].Thus, due to the savings that result from spray drying, there is significantly more selection of spray dried instant coffee products than freeze dried instant coffee products [21]. A problem with spray dried instant coffee is that the powder product is initially too small to be easily used by a consumer, so it has to go through an additional process called agglomeration in which the powder product is made bigger and therefore, more appealing and easier to use[15].Due to the high temperatures used in spray drying, caffeine content may be lowered[13].

Aromatization

Now, after the coffee is dehydrated, it goes through aromatization[18]. There is a machine that can capture these compounds when the beans are being roasted so that the volatile aromas that are characteristic of “good” coffee can be then reintroduced into the nonaromatic, water soluble parts of the instant coffee right before packaging, also known as aromatization[18][14]. Generally the higher quality of bean used to make instant coffee will reflect the final taste and aroma (i.e. flavour) of the instant coffee product [14].

Packaging

The final product is then packaged under anaerobic conditions; generally being CO2 or Nitrogen, because the presence of oxygen causes loss of the desired aroma and taste [13]. Twelve instant coffee particles are hygroscopic: they readily absorb and hold water from their environment[16].This means that the particles must be packaged under low humidity conditions in a moisture proof container[16].This will keep the instant coffee product as fresh as possible until the consumer opens the package[16].

Decaffeinated Coffee Processing

Decaffeinated coffee was created to allow coffee-lovers to enjoy the taste of coffee without the stimulating effects of caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee is somewhat of a misnomer however, as it still usually contains less than 10 milligrams of caffeine per serving [22]. According to international standards, 97% of caffeine must be removed for coffee be considered decaffeinated [23]. There are 3 main methods used in the processing of decaffeinate coffee. All methods begin with pre-soaking green coffee beans in water that has been heated to between 70-100°C [22]. This allows the caffeine to be removed from the bean[22].

Swiss Water® Process

Swiss Water® Decaffeination Process. Red crosses represent caffeine. Green circles represent soluble flavour compounds. Source

The Swiss Water® process was developed by the Swiss Water Decaffeinated Coffee Co. Inc. in 1989. In this process, the water used to soak the green coffee beans is passed through activated charcoal, trapping caffeine particles and allowing compounds contributing to the coffee’s flavour to remain in the water [24].

Presidents Choice Swiss Water Decaf Coffee Product

This solution of flavour compounds, now called Green Coffee Extract (GCE), is used to soak another batch of green coffee beans where its caffeine is extracted into the GCE [24]. This occurs because the flavour compounds in the green beans are in equilibrium with the GCE, thus allowing it to remain in the bean [24]. The GCE is then passed through activated charcoal and recycled where the process repeats again [24]. The beans are dried in preparation to be roasted [24].

The Swiss Water® process allows the beans to be labeled as "Organic" because no chemicals are used during the extraction of coffee [24].

A video demonstrating the Swiss Water® Decaffeination Process can be found here.

A similar method called simply the "Water Process", follows the steps of the Swiss Water® process except that the filtered caffeine-free coffee extract is used with the original beans from which it was extracted to re-flavour the beans and not a new batch.

Direct Process

In the direct process, solvents of methylene chloride and/or ethyl acetate are mixed with green beans[22]. These compounds dissolve the caffeine in the beans[22]. The caffeine-containing solvent is then removed and the coffee beans are steamed to remove any leftover solvent before being dried for roasting[22]. Ethyl acetate is found naturally in fruits and vegetables, thus direct processes using the solvent are considered “natural”, although the chemical is synthesized artificially [25]. The amount of methylene chloride found in decaffeinated coffee ranges from 0.5 to 4µg/g which is lower than the maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) for methylene chloride as determined by Health Canada (50 µg/L) [26].

CO2 Process

The CO2 process is similar to the direct process, excepting that carbon dioxide is used instead of solvents. This process takes advantage of the chemical properties of supercritical carbon dioxide where, under high pressure, carbon dioxide acts like a gas and a liquid— expanding like a gas but remaining dense like a liquid [22]. The pressurized CO2 is circulated through green coffee beans where it removes the caffeine[22]. The caffeinated CO2 is then filtered through activated charcoal to remove the caffeine, and it is eventually reused[22]. This method is more expensive and is generally used in larger batches of decaffeination [27].

The beginning of this video shows the formation of supercritical carbon dioxide.

Canadian Regulation and Standards

As with all food products sold in Canada (2010). , Health Canada is responsible for making sure that the quality and safety of coffee sold in Canada meets the established Canadian standards under the Food and Drugs Act. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for enforcing the regulations that apply to the manufacturing and sales of coffee, including the general Consumer Packaging and Labeling Act that applies to most prepackaged foods sold in Canada. [28]

As of 2005, amendments were made regarding the mandatory nutritional labeling of coffee and tea products in Canada. The Coffee Association of Canada and The Tea Association of Canada requested that coffee and tea products be exempt from the standing nutritional labeling regulations, reasoning that although coffee would contain “0 g” of the core nutrients, it may be drastically different in the form in which the coffee is sold or consumed. Thus, the amendment was sought in order to minimize consumer confusion by removing coffee and tea from the mandatory nutritional labeling law. [29].

Fair Trade

Fairtrade Canda

Regarding the sale and purchase of coffee, an increasingly popular concept is that of fair trade. Trends show that consumers are becoming increasingly interested in buying fair trade coffee. There are many different organizations involved with the fair trade system. In order for a product to be considered fair trade, the entire network of processes involved with the production and selling of a commodity must have met the international standards to ensure that the process is exploitation free and that business is done with fairness and respect. In 1988, coffee became the first agricultural product to be certified as fair trade. [28]

Fairtrade Canada is the primary nonprofit certification organization that ensures that the products that enter Canada to be sold as Fair Trade products have in fact met the international Fairtrade standards [30]

The Fair Trade Federation is an association of North American organizations committed to fair trade and lists 9 principles that the members must uphold. [31] These are:

Fair Trade Federation
  • 1. Creating Opportunities for Economically and Socially Marginalized Producers
  • 2. Developing Transparent and Accountable Relationships
  • 3. Building Capacity
  • 4. Promoting Fair Trade
  • 5. Paying Promptly and Fairly
  • 6. Supporting Safe and Empowering Working Conditions
  • 7. Ensuring the Rights of Children
  • 8. Cultivating Environmental Stewardship
  • 9. Respecting Cultural Identity


Aside from the government organizations and agencies, large corporations also play an important role in ensuring that the coffee consumers purchase is of high quality and has met international standards.

Leading Coffee Fair Trade Company in Canada

Starbucks and their business partners, including the farmers that grow the coffee, must adhere to the Starbucks’ Coffee and Farmer Equity (C.A.F.E.) Practices [32]. Tim Horton’s has also recently implemented their own Business Partner and Supplier Code of Conduct (BPSCC) that must be adhered to regarding their food, equipment and packaging suppliers [33] This includes an independent audit and verification program.

Organic Coffee

Also of interest to many consumers are organic coffees that are associated with being environmentally friendly and also of higher quality than regular non-organic coffee. The Organic Products Regulations permits the use of the following organic claims:[28]

"organic": organic products with organic content of greater than 95% may be labelled "organic" and bear the "Canada organic" logo; "% organic ingredients": multi-ingredient products with 70%-95% organic product content may use the claim "% organic ingredients" but cannot bear the "Canada organic" logo; or, "organic" in the list of ingredients: multi-ingredient products with less than 70% organic content may identify organic products in the ingredient list and cannot bear the "Canada organic" logo.

Health Canada

Health Canada’s recommended daily intake: [34]

Children 12 and under: no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight.

Women of childbearing age: no more than 300mg.

General population of healthy adults: no more than 400mg.

Health Canada is also responsible for determining the types of pesticides permitted for usage on coffee crops, and how they are used, under the Pest Control Products Act [34]. Pesticide levels in coffee products must not exceed regulation levels.

Conclusion

The popularity of coffee products within Canada is undeniable. This has become especially evident in the last twenty years, although coffee is certainly not a new invention. Our everyday lexicon has shifted to include a myriad of coffee terminology—from a double-double, to an extra dry triple shot cappuccino, to non-fat vanilla soy lattes, coffee has become a beverage that is specially tailored for each consumer. This has contributed to the ever-expanding availability of products, and the consistently growing and restructuring systems of regulations, production and storage methods. As the demand for variety and particular production within the Canadian coffee market continues to expand, it appears that consumers are becoming increasingly conscious of the origins of their daily beverage. Coffee connoisseurs continue to seek out the finest roasts and explore the wide market of fair trade products, and coffee chains continue to sprout from every street corner. Coffee remains a constant in the lives of many as a relatively affordable, energizing, social and versatile product.

References

  1. ↑ Coffee Association of Canada. (2003). Coffee in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.coffeeassoc.com/coffeeincanada.htm [Accessed 10 March, 2012].
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 National Coffee Association USA. (2012). Ten Steps to Coffee. Retrieved from http://www.ncausa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=69 [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Lakota Coffee Company. (2011a). Green Coffee Beans. Retrieved from http://www.specialty-coffee-advisor.com/green-coffee-beans.html [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Coffee Beans. (2012). Coffee Roasting Process. Retrieved from http://www.coffeebeans.ie/about-coffee-page34051.html [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Lakota Coffee Company. (2011b). Fresh Roasted Coffee. Retrieved from http://www.specialty-coffee-advisor.com/fresh-roasted-coffee.html [Accessed 15 March, 2011].
  6. ↑ Del Castillo, M.D, Ames, J.M.,& Gordon, M.H. (2002). Effect of roasting on the antioxidant activity of coffee brews. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50:13, 3698-3703. Retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/jf011702q [Accessed 15 March, 2012]
  7. ↑ Coffee. (2012). How products are made. Retrieved from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Coffee.html [Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  8. ↑ Frequently asked questions about coffee. (1998). U of Waterloo. Retrieved from http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~alopez-o/Coffee/coffaq.html [Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Coffee Beans. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.thecoffeefaq.com/2coffeebeans.html [Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Storing ground coffee for maximum freshness. (2007). The coffee brewers. Retrieved from http://www.thecoffeebrewers.com/stgrcoformaf.html [Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  11. ↑ The science of superior coffee. (2006). Kafexpress. Retrieved from http://kafespress.com/index.php?page=coffeequality [Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  12. ↑ Preservatives. (2011). Food additives. Retrieved from http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/preservatives.html[Accessed 3 March, 2012].
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 Moore, K. (2008). The popular drink's less popular, highly processed relative. Chemical and Engineering News, vol. 86( numb. 39), p. 42. Retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/isubscribe/journals/cen/86/i39/html/8639sci3.htm [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Ogden, R. (1994).U.S. Patent No. 5,332,591. Retrieved from http://www.google.ca/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT5332591&id=lowbAAAAEBAJ&oi=fnd&dq=instant coffee packaging&printsec=abstract [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Wayne, F. (n.d.). All about spray dried coffee. Retrieved from http://www.streetdirectory.com/food_editorials/beverages/coffee/all_about_spray_dried_coffee.html [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Blachford, S.L. (2002). Instant coffee. How products are made, Ed. Stacey L. Blachford, Vol. 3. Gale Cengage, 2002. eNotes.com. Retrieved from http://www.enotes.com/instant-coffee-reference [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 GEA Westfalia Separator Group. (n.d.). Coffee extract, ready-to-drink coffee products, coffee substitutes and cereal drinks. Retrieved from http://www.westfalia-separator.com/applications/beverage-technology/coffee-extract-ready-to-drink-coffee-products-coffee-substitutes-cereal-drinks.html [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Harrington, D. (n.d.). Espresso & Coffee Guide, Instant Coffee. WordPress Admin 2009-2012. Retrieved from http://www.espressocoffeeguide.com/instant-coffee/ [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 Dehydration as a food preservation method. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://wiki.ubc.ca/Course:FNH200/Lesson_08 [Assessed 15 March, 2012.]
  20. ↑ Anna. Kristina. (n.d.). Instant coffee. Worldwide bag media inc, 2008-2012. Retrieved from http://annaandkristina.com/?action=d7_article_viewer_view_article&Join_ID=440105&template=tp-test-lab-view-article.htm7/ [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  21. ↑ Incasa coffee. (n.d.). What is“Soluble Coffee”?. Incasa coffee, 2008. Retrieved from http://www.incasacoffee.com/WhatIsSolubleCoffee.shtml/ [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 Clydesdale, F. (1999). How is caffeine removed to produce decaffeinated coffee? : Scientific American. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-is-caffeine-removed-t [Accessed 15 March, 2012]
  23. ↑ Energy Fiend. (2012). Caffeine in drinks. Starbucks Tall Decaf Coffee. Retrieved from http://www.energyfiend.com/caffeine-content/starbucks-tall-decaf-coffee [Accessed 20 March, 2012]
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 Swiss Water Decaffeinated Coffee Co. Inc. (2011). Swiss Water Decaf >> Science of Decaffeination. Retrieved from http://www.swisswater.com/trade/the-swiss-water-experience/science-of-decaffeination [Accessed 15 March, 2012]
  25. ↑ Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Inc. (2004). Decaffeination Process - Green Mountain Coffee. Retrieved from http://www.greenmountaincoffee.com/decaffeination-process.aspx [Accessed 15 March, 2012]
  26. ↑ Health Canada. (2010). Non-Medicinal Ingredients Nomenclature. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/prodpharma/applic-demande/guide-ld/nonmedingred/nmi_inm-eng.php [Accessed 15 March, 2012]
  27. ↑ International Coffee Organization. (2011). International Coffee Organization - Decaffeinate. Retrieved from http://www.ico.org/decaffeination.asp [Accessed 15 March, 2012
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. The Canadian Coffee Industry (2010). Retrieved from http://www4.agr.gc.ca/AAFC-AAC/display-afficher.do?id=1172237152079&lang=eng [Accessed 12 March, 2012].
  29. ↑ Coffee Association of Canada (2003). Retrieved from http://www.coffeeassoc.com/gov_rel2_label.htm [Accessed 15 March, 2012].
  30. ↑ Fairtrade Canada (2010). About Fairtrade Canada. Retrieved from http://fairtrade.ca/en/about-fairtrade/fairtrade-canada [Accessed 10 March, 2012]
  31. ↑ Fair Trade Federation (2012). About Fair Trade. Retrieved from http://www.fairtradefederation.org/ht/d/sp/i/2733/pid/2733 [Accessed 10 March, 2012]
  32. ↑ Starbucks (2011). Responsibly Grown Coffee. Retrieved from http://www.starbucks.com/responsibility/sourcing/coffee [Accessed 10 March 2012]
  33. ↑ Tim Hortons (2010). 2010 Sustainability and Responsibility Report. Retrieved from http://www.timhortons.com/ca/pdf/2010SR_Summary_Report.pdf [Accessed 10 March 2012]
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Health Canada (2011). Healthy Living. Caffeine. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/iyh-vsv/food-aliment/caffeine-eng.php#he [Accessed 11 March 2012]
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