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Course:EOSC311/2025/Crystals, Circuits, and Code: The Geological Roots of Modern Computing

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Overview

This project explores the connection between geology and computer science by focusing on how specific geological materials power modern technology. The digital devices we use every day, including phones and laptops, rely on minerals such as silicon, cobalt, and rare earth elements[1]. These elements are extracted from the Earth and refined into essential components like microchips, magnets, and batteries[2]. The project will examine the geological formation, extraction, and technological application of each of these materials. It will also include a focused case study on cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo[3] and a review of rare earth elements used in computing[4]. Ethical and environmental concerns related to extraction will be explored, along with emerging strategies for sustainable sourcing[5]. The aim is to show that computer science is deeply connected to geological processes and to encourage greater awareness of material origins within the technology sector.

Statement of connection and why you chose it

As a Computer Science student with experience in both academia and the tech industry, I have spent countless hours working on software, algorithms, and digital infrastructure. Yet, until now, I had rarely considered the physical journey behind the devices I use every day. It is easy to forget that beneath every app or program lies a foundation of geological materials. These elements formed deep within the Earth long before our current technology existed.

I chose to focus my project on silicon, cobalt, and rare earth elements because they are essential to the hardware at the heart of digital technology. Silicon is the building block of microchips, cobalt is critical for batteries, and rare earth elements are indispensable for powerful magnets, displays, and sensors.[1] These materials enable everything from smartphones to supercomputers, yet their geological origins and the impacts of their extraction are often overlooked in computer science education.

By including a detailed case study on cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo, I wanted to ground my project in a real-world context and highlight the complex consequences—social, environmental, and ethical—of rising global demand for tech materials.[3] Through this interdisciplinary approach, I was able to connect my technical background with new insights from geology, broadening my understanding of the true cost and origin of our digital world.

This project has also given me the opportunity to reflect on how our choices as developers, engineers, and consumers can influence not just technological innovation, but also environmental stewardship and social responsibility.[2][5] I hope my work encourages others in computer science to recognize the importance of these connections and to approach the future of technology with greater awareness and care for the planet’s resources.

Main text

How Earth Materials Enable Computing

Modern computing is fundamentally rooted in geology. Every digital device, from smartphones to supercomputers, depends on materials that formed within the Earth over millions of years. These geological materials are not just important; they are the foundation of how computers function. Silicon chips, lithium batteries, and rare earth magnets are all possible because of the extraction and processing of naturally occurring minerals.[6][7]

Despite this deep connection, the geological roots of digital technology are often overlooked. In fields like computer science, the focus is typically on abstract algorithms, user interface design, or high-level hardware architecture. As a result, the physical and geological origins of the materials that make these systems possible are rarely discussed or appreciated[2]. Many people who work with or use technology every day do not realize that their devices are created from sand, rock, and metal sourced from deep beneath the Earth's surface.

Key Minerals That Power Technology

Figure 1: Visualizing the critical metals in a smartphone, showing the geological origins of key device components.[6]

As shown in Figure 1, a variety of critical metals make up the devices we use every day:

  • Silicon is the cornerstone of digital computing. It is derived from quartz sand and refined through a series of chemical and thermal processes until it becomes pure enough for use in microchips. These chips are the central components in computers, phones, and servers[6].
  • Lithium and cobalt are vital for energy storage. These metals are used in rechargeable batteries that power smartphones, laptops, electric vehicles, and more. Lithium is often sourced from salt flats and brine pools in places like Chile and Argentina, while cobalt is typically mined from copper-rich rock in the Democratic Republic of Congo[3][8].
  • Rare Earth Elements (REEs) such as neodymium, dysprosium, and terbium are used in small yet powerful magnets, speakers, sensors, and screen displays. They are essential for miniaturizing technology and making devices energy efficient. While not technically rare in abundance, they are difficult to mine and process economically[9][10].

Why This Connection Is Overlooked

There are several reasons why the connection between geology and computing remains invisible to many.

First, most of the attention in the tech industry is focused on software development or product design. Even in hardware engineering, conversations often begin at the circuit board level, not at the mine. This abstraction hides the material story of our devices[2].

Second, the global supply chain for electronic components is extremely complex. A smartphone might be designed in California, assembled in China, and contain minerals mined in the Congo, Australia, or Chile. This geographic disconnection separates users from the sources of the materials in their hands[3].

Finally, educational pathways in STEM often keep geology and computing in separate silos. Few undergraduate programs provide interdisciplinary courses that connect Earth science to computer science, which leads to a widespread lack of awareness among students and professionals alike[2].

Raising awareness about this link is not just an academic exercise. It opens the door to more responsible sourcing, better environmental practices, and deeper conversations about sustainability in tech.

Silicon and the Foundation of Microchips

Figure 2: A visual summary of the key steps in turning quartz into silicon wafers for use in microchips and electronics, showing the connection between geology and technology.[11]

Silicon is formed predominantly through geological processes involving the slow cooling and crystallization of molten magma, which leads to the formation of quartz-rich rocks such as granite[12]. Quartz, the primary source of silicon, is extracted from the Earth through mining and then refined using both physical and chemical purification processes. This results in ultra-pure silicon, which is essential for its use as a semiconductor material due to its stable atomic structure and ability to conduct electricity under controlled conditions[13][14].

The purified silicon is then sliced into wafers, which serve as the base for microchips and other semiconductor devices (see Figure 2). These wafers are the backbone of nearly every modern computing system. They are used in microprocessors, integrated circuits, and memory chips that power smartphones, laptops, cloud servers, and even medical devices. Without silicon, the entire infrastructure of digital technology as we know it would be impossible[15].

Figure 3: Bar chart illustrating silicon production by country in thousands of metric tons per year, based on 2022 data. China leads by a large margin, followed by Russia, Brazil, Norway, and the United States.[16]

From a production standpoint, China is by far the largest producer of silicon, followed by countries such as Russia, Norway, and the United States as shown in Figure 3[16]. These nations play key roles in the global silicon supply chain, which includes mining, refinement, wafer fabrication, and final assembly into electronic products. A flowchart illustrating this lifecycle, beginning with geological formation and ending with electronic application, offers a clear picture of the journey from Earth's crust to cutting-edge technology[11].

Despite being one of the most widely used materials in computer science, silicon's origins are rarely discussed within the tech community. Most developers and consumers interact only with the final products, unaware of the immense energy, time, and geological history embedded in every chip. This disconnect creates a blind spot in conversations about sustainability, ethical sourcing, and long-term supply limitations. As demand increases due to the exponential growth of artificial intelligence, data centers, and edge computing, our reliance on silicon will intensify. Understanding its geological context can foster greater respect for the finite nature of these resources and inspire efforts toward material innovation and responsible sourcing.

Rare Earth Elements in Digital Devices

Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of 17 chemically similar metallic elements that include the 15 lanthanides on the periodic table, as well as scandium and yttrium. Despite their name, rare earths are not necessarily scarce in terms of overall abundance, but they are rarely found in concentrated, economically mineable deposits. These elements are typically formed during igneous processes within Earth’s crust, often accumulating in carbonatite and alkaline igneous rocks or in heavy mineral sand deposits, where they persist due to their resistance to weathering.[17]

Figure 4: Modified periodic table highlighting the 17 rare earth elements, including the lanthanides, yttrium, and lutetium, that are used in high-tech devices and clean energy applications.[17]

REEs have become indispensable to modern digital devices due to their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties. Neodymium, for example, is essential for the powerful permanent magnets used in laptop speakers, camera autofocus systems, and hard disk drives. Europium and terbium are critical for display screens, providing the red and green phosphors in LED and LCD displays. Lanthanum is used in camera lenses to enhance optical quality, while cerium is required for polishing silicon wafers during microchip production.[18]

Although each individual device contains only trace amounts of rare earths, the total global demand is enormous due to the scale of electronics manufacturing. Miniaturization and specialization in technology mean that even tiny quantities of these elements play vital roles in device functionality. A single smartphone can contain up to a dozen different REEs, each serving a specific function in the circuitry, battery, or screen.[6]

Most REEs are mined as by-products of other mineral extraction, making their production complex and often environmentally hazardous. The global supply is dominated by China, which accounts for over 60 percent of worldwide production and an even greater share of processing capabilities. Other countries such as Australia, the United States, Myanmar, and India also produce REEs, though at much smaller scales.[19] The concentration of mining and refining in just a few regions raises important concerns about geopolitical supply risks and environmental impacts. For example, some mining operations are associated with radioactive waste and water contamination due to the presence of thorium and other hazardous by-products in REE-bearing ores.[20]

Figure 5: Historical chart showing global production trends of rare earth oxides by region (China, USA, Other) from 1950 to 2000, illustrating the shift in global supply.[19]

While the general public may be familiar with gold or copper in electronics, the contribution of REEs is far less visible. This is largely because they are not marketed as consumer-facing materials and are present only in minute quantities within highly specialized components. However as shown in Figure 4 and 5, their importance in everything from smartphones to electric vehicles and wind turbines makes them central to discussions about both digital infrastructure and green energy.[21]

As we move further into a technology-driven world, demand for REEs will only continue to rise. This makes it increasingly important not only to understand their geological origins, but also to address the ethical, environmental, and geopolitical challenges involved in their extraction and processing.

Cobalt and the Battery Industry: Case Study of the Democratic Republic of Congo

Figure 6: Simplified geological map showing ore deposits and mining districts in the DRC's Central African Copperbelt, where most global cobalt is mined.[22]

Cobalt is a transition metal that is primarily extracted from stratiform copper-cobalt ore deposits in the Katanga region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). These deposits formed hundreds of millions of years ago through tectonic and hydrothermal processes associated with the ancient Congo Craton and the Lufilian Arc.[23] Cobalt-rich layers are found alongside copper in sedimentary and volcanic rocks, shaped by fluid circulation and compressional tectonics.

Cobalt plays a central role in lithium-ion batteries, where it stabilizes the cathode structure and improves energy density and thermal performance. As of 2023, approximately 85 percent of cobalt demand is tied to battery manufacturing, especially for electric vehicles, and this proportion is expected to remain steady or increase by 2030.[24]

The DRC is the world’s dominant supplier, producing about 70 percent of mined cobalt and holding over half of global reserves.[25] Around 80 percent of this production comes from large-scale copper mining operations, while the remaining 15 to 30 percent originates from artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), often in informal settings with minimal oversight.[26][27]

Figure 7: Women engaged in small-scale artisanal mining in the DRC, breaking apart cobalt-rich rocks. This highlights social and environmental risks in the supply chain.[28]

Artisanal mining in the DRC frequently involves hazardous conditions. Reports by the U.S. Department of Labor show that over half of cobalt mining sites involve child labor, with some children as young as ten working without protective equipment for less than two dollars a day.[29][30] Environmental risks are equally serious, including heavy metal contamination of water and soil, habitat destruction, and deforestation caused by both ASM and industrial operations.[31][32]

Major industrial sites such as Tenke Fungurume and Kamoto dominate copper-cobalt mining in the region and generally adhere to international environmental standards.[33][34] However, these industrial mines often coexist with unregulated ASM pits within the same concessions, leading to tension over land use, mineral access, and governance.[35]

Demand from the Tech Industry and Its Global Impact

The Role of Consumer Tech in Mineral Demand

The rapid growth of technology, including smartphones, laptops, data centers, AI infrastructure, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems, directly drives mineral demand. Critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, and rare earth elements (REEs) have seen unprecedented increases in extraction due to the tech industry’s appetite for innovation and scalability.[36][37] The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that lithium demand will increase eightfold by 2040, while nickel and cobalt demand are expected to double under net zero climate scenarios.[38]

Surging Demand and Extraction Rates

Figure 8: Bar graph showing projected cobalt demand growth from lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, reflecting the steep rise from 2016 to 2030. Adapted from IEA data.

As illustrated in Figure 8, projected cobalt demand for lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles is expected to increase steeply, from under 10,000 metric tons in 2016 to over 90,000 metric tons by 2030.

Between 2017 and 2022, clean energy technologies contributed to a 70 percent increase in cobalt demand, a 40 percent rise in nickel use, and a nearly threefold surge in lithium consumption.[39][40] These trends represent only part of the overall trajectory. Cobalt demand could rise six to thirty times current levels by 2040, and REE demand may climb three to seven times.[41]

Environmental Footprint

Mining for these elements requires heavy energy use, produces substantial greenhouse gas emissions, and poses serious risks to ecosystems. Mining operations currently account for approximately 4 to 7 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.[42] For example, the expansion of lithium mining in Chile has strained local water resources, while nickel extraction in Indonesia has caused deforestation and polluted rivers.[43]

Concentrated Supply Chains and Vulnerability

The global concentration of mineral supply introduces significant geopolitical and logistical risks. In 2024, 86 percent of critical minerals were sourced from just three countries. China alone dominated the refining of 19 out of 20 strategic materials.[44] This kind of centralization leaves international supply chains vulnerable to disruptions caused by political tensions, trade restrictions, or shifts in environmental regulations.

Ethical Sourcing and the Future of Tech Materials

As global demand for tech devices grows, the environmental and social costs of mining critical minerals have increased pressure to find sustainable alternatives. Figure 9 illustrates the concept of closed-loop urban mining, a strategy that is gaining momentum as a solution for reducing the need for new mineral extraction.

Figure 9: Visual infographic showing closed-loop urban mining stages: infrastructure, collection, material data management, and secondary material reuse. Adapted from SciencePG, 2021.[45]

This section explores three key strategies: closed-loop recycling, material substitution, and urban mining, as well as recent industry initiatives, the role of developers, and actions for consumers.

Closed Loop Recycling

Closed-loop recycling aims to recover and reuse materials from end-of-life electronics, reducing the need for fresh mining. Apple’s “Daisy” robot disassembles iPhones at high throughput to reclaim cobalt, gold, rare earths, and other metals.[46] Apple aims to use 100 percent recycled cobalt and rare earth magnets in its devices by 2025.[47] Similarly, Tesla and Apple are developing advanced battery recycling technologies to recover lithium, nickel, and cobalt.[48]

Figure 10 provides an example from Apple’s 2023 environmental report, showing how recycled and renewable materials are integrated into their MacBook Pro products.

Figure 10: Infographic from Apple’s Oct 2023 product environmental report, displaying recycled and renewable materials used in the 16‑inch MacBook Pro.[49]

Material Substitution

To limit reliance on scarce or harmful minerals, researchers and companies are testing alternatives. Iron‑phosphate batteries reduce dependence on cobalt for EVs. Some display technologies now incorporate advanced alloys or recycled components to lower rare-earth use.[50]

Urban Mining

Urban mining refers to recovering valuable metals from electronic waste and infrastructure rather than extracting raw ores. A global review highlights how legislation, extended producer responsibility, and sorting tech enable recovery of gold, copper, lithium, cobalt, and REEs from waste streams.[51]

Taiwan is notable for repurposing scrap REEs and building integrated recycling systems for steel and electronics, reducing virgin ore demand and CO₂ emissions. As ore grades decline and e-waste grows, urban mining becomes more cost-effective than primary extraction.[52]

Corporate Sustainability Initiatives

Apple, Tesla, Google, and Microsoft have set 100 % renewable energy goals and are integrating recycled materials into their supply chains.[53][54][55]

Role of Tech Developers and Consumers

Tech developers can:

  • Design devices for easy disassembly and material recovery.
  • Track material provenance using blockchain frameworks.[56]

Consumers can:

  • Use recycling programs like Apple Trade‑In.[57]
  • Support brands with transparent sourcing.
  • Advocate for legislation like EPR and stricter recycling standards.[58]

Conclusion / Your Evaluation of the Connections

Through the course of this project, I have come to understand that computer science is not just about software, code, and algorithms. Beneath every device I use or work on, whether it is a smartphone, a laptop, or a data center server, is a physical infrastructure made possible by geology. Materials like silicon, cobalt, and rare earth elements are the literal foundation of digital technology, and they are products of complex geological processes that take millions of years to occur.[59] Recognizing this connection has shifted my perspective. I no longer see computing as detached from the natural world, but as deeply rooted in it.

This project also helped me appreciate the scale and complexity of the global systems behind our technology. The demand from the tech industry influences mining practices around the world, creating both opportunities and challenges.[60] For example, while the expansion of battery technologies supports green innovation, it also raises serious concerns about environmental degradation and human rights, particularly in regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo.[28][30]

I was particularly struck by the possibilities for ethical sourcing and sustainable innovation. Initiatives by companies like Apple and Tesla show that industry leaders can take responsibility for the materials they use.[61] But the real potential lies in collaborative action among geologists, engineers, designers, and policymakers to create a more transparent and sustainable tech ecosystem. As a student and future technologist, I feel a growing responsibility to contribute to this shift.

This project has encouraged me to think more critically about the full lifecycle of the technologies I engage with. Moving forward, I want to stay informed about material sourcing and sustainability practices in the companies I support or work for. I also want to raise awareness within my community that our digital world is not weightless. It has geological roots that must be respected and managed wisely. Geology and computer science may seem like distant fields, but this project has shown me that they are in fact tightly connected, and that bridging them can lead to more conscious and responsible innovation.

Reference

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Quartz mineral: Photos, uses, properties, pictures". Geology.com. Retrieved June 2, 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Giurco, Damien; Carlia, Chris (2012). "Mining and sustainability: Asking the right questions". Resources Policy. 29: 3–12 – via ScienceDirect.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2019). "The precarious political economy of cobalt: Balancing prosperity, poverty, and brutality in artisanal and industrial mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". The Extractive Industries and Society. 6: 915–939 – via ScienceDirect.
  4. ↑ "Critical minerals in technology". British Geological Survey. Retrieved June 2, 2025.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Environmental Progress Report" (PDF). Apple. 2024. Retrieved June 2, 2025.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "Rare Earth Elements". Geology.com. Retrieved June 17, 2025. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "KingREE" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ "Quartz mineral: Photos, uses, properties, pictures". Geology.com. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  8. ↑ "Critical minerals in technology". British Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  9. ↑ "Rare earth elements: Not so rare, but hard to mine" (PDF). British Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  10. ↑ "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024 – Rare Earths" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "How Chips Are Made" (PDF). Intel. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  12. ↑ Skinner, Brian J.; Murck, Barbara W. (2011). Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet. USA: Brooks Cole. pp. 122–124. ISBN 9780495011406 Check |isbn= value: checksum (help).
  13. ↑ "Quartz mineral: Photos, uses, properties, pictures". Geology.com. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  14. ↑ Lide, David R. (2004). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849304859.
  15. ↑ Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006). Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780072953589.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023 – Silicon" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Critical minerals in technology". British Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  18. ↑ "Critical Materials Strategy" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023 – Rare Earths" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  20. ↑ Ali, Saleem H. (2014). "Social and environmental impact of the rare earth industries". Resources. 3 (1): 123–134. doi:10.3390/resources3010123.
  21. ↑ Golev, Artem; Scott, Michelle; Erskine, Peter D.; Ali, Saleem H.; Ballantyne, Gavin R. (2014). "Rare earths supply chains: Current status, constraints and opportunities". Resources Policy. 41: 52–59. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.03.008.
  22. ↑ Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2019). "The precarious political economy of cobalt: Balancing prosperity, poverty, and brutality in artisanal and industrial mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo". The Extractive Industries and Society. 6: 915–939. doi:10.1016/j.exis.2019.05.018. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  23. ↑ "Lufilian Arc". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  24. ↑ "Cobalt". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  25. ↑ "The Environmental Impacts of Cobalt Mining in Congo". Earth.org. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  26. ↑ "The responsible cobalt sourcing assemblage: Thinking through a global extractive industry". ScienceDirect. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  27. ↑ "Cobalt Statistics and Information". USGS. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "2022 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor". U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  29. ↑ "Combatting Child Labor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Cobalt Industry". U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Kara, Sidney (December 3, 2021). "The Cobalt Children: Mining's Deadly Price". Vanity Fair. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  31. ↑ "The Environmental Impacts of Cobalt Mining in Congo". Earth.org. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  32. ↑ "Cobalt". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  33. ↑ "Tenke Fungurume Mine". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  34. ↑ "Kamoto mine". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  35. ↑ "Cobalt". Wikipedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  36. ↑ "What is Driving the Demand for Critical Minerals?". IDTechEx. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  37. ↑ "Why tech giants are racing to secure critical minerals". UNCTAD. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  38. ↑ "The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions". International Energy Agency (IEA). Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  39. ↑ "Minerals used in clean energy technologies". IEA. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  40. ↑ "Global demand for lithium and cobalt is skyrocketing". Associated Press. March 2, 2023. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  41. ↑ "IEA: Critical mineral demand projections". International Energy Agency. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  42. ↑ "Mining's role in the transition to a clean energy future". arXiv. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  43. ↑ "Lithium mining in Chile is draining the world's driest desert". TIME. May 16, 2022. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  44. ↑ "Critical mineral sourcing raises supply chain vulnerabilities". AP News. February 3, 2024. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  45. ↑ Chen, Wei (2021). "Urban mining: extracting resources from waste". SciencePG. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  46. ↑ Ferguson, David (2022-05-17). "Robot Daisy can take an iPhone apart in 18 seconds". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  47. ↑ Apple (October 2023). "Apple Environmental Progress Report 2023" (PDF). Apple. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  48. ↑ Montoya, Anthony T. (2022). "Direct Recycling of Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: A Multi-Stage Annealing Process to Recover the Pristine Structure and Performance". ACS Central Science. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  49. ↑ Apple (October 2023). "Apple Environmental Progress Report 2023" (PDF). Apple. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  50. ↑ Ko, Kun-Hee (2025). "https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.5c00207". ACS Omega. Retrieved June 17, 2025. External link in |title= (help)
  51. ↑ "Urban mining - turning waste into strategic resources". SciencePG. 2025. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  52. ↑ "Why Taiwan Is Becoming a Leader in Urban Mining". ACS Publications. 2024. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  53. ↑ Microsoft (January 16, 2023). "Microsoft sustainability commitments". Microsoft. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  54. ↑ "Apple will use 100 percent recycled cobalt in batteries by 2025". Apple Newsroom. April 20, 2023. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  55. ↑ "2023 Tesla Impact Report" (PDF). Tesla. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  56. ↑ Ankam, Srinivas (2020). "Blockchain for transparent supply chains" (PDF). arXiv. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  57. ↑ "Apple Trade In". Apple. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  58. ↑ "Extended Producer Responsibility Packaging". MDPI. 2023. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  59. ↑ Skinner, Brian J.; Murck, Barbara W. (2011). Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet. USA: Brooks Cole. pp. 122–124. ISBN 9780495011406 Check |isbn= value: checksum (help).
  60. ↑ "The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions". International Energy Agency. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
  61. ↑ "Apple Environmental Progress Report 2023" (PDF). Apple. October 2023. Retrieved June 17, 2025.
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