Course:EOSC311/2024/Geology and Sustainability in Vancouver: Building a Resilient city amid Earthquakes and Natural Hazards

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Summary

This project will investigate the relationship between the geology surrounding Vancouver and Greater Vancouver and the urban development, focusing on the sustainability and resilience which is needed for construction in a hazard-prone city such as Vancouver. From a geological perspective, this project will identify areas which are vulnerable to earthquakes and slope failures due to soil and rock compositions and assess how urban development interacts with these features. The outcome will be a set of recommendations and current policies in place which ensures that future developments are sustainable and resilient, enhancing Vancouver's ability to withstand the geological challenges.

Figure 1: Vancouver's position within the Cascadia Subduction zone and potential Earthquake threat.

Introduction

Overview of Vancouver's Geology

Vancouver is located within the seismically active Cascadia Subduction Zone as seen with Figure 1, which faces significant geological challenges that impact the creation of a resilient city amid the threat of an earthquake [1]. The region's complex geology underpinned by diverse soil and rock types such as sandstone bedrock, granitic, volcanic, sedimentary bedrock, Ice Age sediments, and modern sediments makes it susceptible to natural hazards like earthquakes and slope failures [2].

Urban Development Challenges

The unique geological setting of Vancouver poses several challenges for urban development. The variety of geological materials, such as those displayed in GeoMap Vancouver, influences the city's vulnerability to hazards like landslides and liquefaction [2]. The creation of a resilient city must account for these risks, ensuring that infrastructure and sufficient preparations and planning account for and can withstand geological threats or there could be significant ramifications including billions of dollars of damage [3].

Research Objectives and Connection to my Major.

This project aims to investigate the direct relationship between Vancouver's geological conditions and urban development, focusing on creating a sustainable and resilient city in wake of the looming threat of a megathrust earthquake [4]. By identifying vulnerable areas and assessing current development strategies, the project seeks to provide recommendations and evaluate policies to ensure future constructions are designed to withstand geological threats. The use of geological maps, such as GeoMap Vancouver, and the distribution of material are crucial in this study for effective engineering, environmental assessment, and land-use planning [2].

This project aligns with my major in Geography: Environment and Sustainability, providing a holistic understanding of ecological, physical, socio-cultural, economic and political systems. The Degree program emphasizes global stewardship and sustainable practices, preparing me to tackle difficult environmental issues such as the repercussions and mitigation of hazards like earthquakes. Furthermore, my career interests in Environmental Social Governance (ESG) are directly connected to this project's goal of integrating sustainability when mitigating environmental risks. Studies I have undertaken within the course in areas such as geomatics, urban studies, and environmental assessment empowers me to effectively address the immediate geological concerns of earthquake hazards in Vancouver whilst making suitable recomendations for long-term sustainable development.

Earthquake Threat in Vancouver.

Geological Setting: The Cascadia Subduction Zone and its significance:

Figure 2 Cascade subduction zone indication Volcanoes present in the region.

As previously mentioned, Vancouver is located within the seismically active convergent Cascadia Subduction Zone (CSZ) sitting 60 and 150 miles off the west coast of Vancouver Island [5]. Therefore the city faces significant geological challenges with regards to hazards such as earthquakes. The CSZ is a 1,000 km long fault stretching from Northern Vancouver Island to Cape Mendocino, California - this is where the convergence of the oceanic Juan de Fuca plate subducts beneath the continental North American plate, with apparently over 11,000 kilometers of oceanic crust already subducted at this boundary - Figure 2 illustrates this [3] [1]. At depths less than 30 km, friction keeps the CSZ locked, causing strain to accumulate until a megathrust earthquake happens (the largest form or earthquakes in the world occuring at subduction zones) [6]. Unlike potentially other subduction zones where there is a greater production of large impactful earthquakes, the CSZ produces few earthquakes at the plate interface, indicating it is more strongly locked [1].

Vancouver's diverse and complex geology from the lowlands to the highlands, is underpinned by varying soil and rock types from modern to ice-age sediments, making the area susceptible to natural hazards such as earthquakes and slope failures [5]. In addition the primary earthquake hazards such as ground shaking and displacement for example, liquefaction poses a significant threat in the region. Liquefaction is a process where the granular, loose soils below the groundwater table lose strength temporarily and behave like a liquid due to strong earthquake shaking. This process can have severe consequences lead to major ground deformation alongisde damage to buildings and infrastructure [7]. This would be devastating as the increasingly populated city such as Vancouver has important facilities such as water treatment plants which could be impacted directly and indirectly through an earthquake [8].

Earthquake Risk: The earthquake threats posed to Vancouver due to its position:

According to Armstrong (1990), British Columbia's populated southwest corner, including Vancouver, is the most active earthquake region in Canada [5]. More than 200 earthquakes are recorded annually in the Fraser Lowland and Vancouver Island, with a likelihood of a damaging earthquake happening about once every ten years. Seismologists and geological evidence suggests significant earthquakes happen every 400 to 600 years and estimate that a megathrust earthquake of magnitude 8 or higher could occur at any time in the next 200 years due to the geological setting of the area, characterised by the Cascadia Subduction Zone [9] [1] .

If a magnitude 7.3 earthquake occurred today in the Strait of Georgia, modelling has predicted and shown that downtown Vancouver would be severely impacted, significantly affecting people, businesses, and infrastructure which obviously has ramifications such as, potential Loss of Life and Injury, displacement and economic impacts [10]. This scenario underscores the need for earthquake preparedness, which is crucial for ensuring community resilience and sustainability. Geographically, the concentration of the damage within the city would highlight the need for robust building codes and emergency response strategies to prepare for the earthquake hazard. The geological risk of such events, also emphasizes the importance of ongoing seismic research and policy development to mitigate potential impacts. Economic impact assessments suggest that a hypothetical magnitude 6.5 earthquake beneath Vancouver could result in economic losses of up to CAD 32 billion [3].

Vancouver's vulnerability has increased due to continued population growth and infrastructure development since 1946, making it more susceptible to significant devastation [3]. Figure 6 shows the amount of development within the city of Vancouver which underlines the importance for appropriate risk assessment when considering geology and legitimate earthquake threat.

Historical Earthquakes within the near proximity of the Vancouver Region [11]:

Historically within the region according to Clague (2002), there has only Ten moderate to large earthquakes (Mw 6-7) have occurred within 250 km of Vancouver and Victoria in the last 130 years [3].

1700 Cascadia Earthquake: An estimated magnitude 9.0 megathrust earthquake occurred on January 26, 1700, with tsunami effects felt as far away as Japan [3].

December 15, 1872: A magnitude 7.4 earthquake struck north-central Washington and was felt strongly in the Lower Mainland .

January 11, 1909: A magnitude 6.0 earthquake in the San Juan Islands was strongly felt in the Lower Mainland.

December 6, 1918: A magnitude 7.0 earthquake caused damage on the west coast of Vancouver Island.

January 24, 1920: A magnitude 5.5 earthquake in the San Juan Islands was felt strongly in the Lower Mainland.

June 23, 1946: A magnitude 7.3 earthquake caused significant damage in central Vancouver Island.

April 13, 1949: A magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck the Puget Lowland, causing significant damage in Seattle and Tacoma.

April 29, 1965: A magnitude 6.5 earthquake in the Puget Lowland resulted in considerable damage in Seattle.

November 30, 1975: A magnitude 4.9 earthquake in the Strait of Georgia was followed by many aftershocks.

May 16, 1976: A magnitude 5.4 earthquake occurred in the southern Gulf Islands.

April 14, 1979: A magnitude 4.9 earthquake in the Fraser Lowland was accompanied by many aftershocks.

May 3, 1996: A magnitude 5.5 earthquake east of Seattle was felt in the Lower Mainland.

Recorded earthquakes with magnitudes of 7 or slightly higher include occurrences on Vancouver Island in 1918 and 1946, one east of Vancouver (possibly in the Hope area) in 1872, and one to the south in Puget Sound in 1948 [5].

Future Earthquake Expectations:

Geologists estimate that due to the geological setting of Vancouver, large earthquakes of magnitude 8 or higher could occur at any time in the next 200 years [3]. The area's history of significant seismic activity underscores the potential for future major earthquakes [5] . Additionally, as Vancouver's built environment and population continue to grow, the number of buildings and people exposed to damaging earthquakes increases, further elevates the potential impact of seismic events [12].

Geological Composition of Vancouver.

Although briefly mentioned, it is important to highlight the areas of Vancouver which are specifically exposed to earthquake hazards. From reading Turner et al. (1998) and their GEOMap of Vancouver, it provides the baseline knowledge of the geological setting within Vancouver [2]. It highlights how diverse Vancouver's geological landscape is including the varying modern lowland sediments and ice age upland deposits which each present unique challenges for earthquake resilience.

In the lowland areas there are modern sediments which have been deposited less than 10000 years ago (Holocene age). Landfill ("material deposited by humans" [2]) is found near urban regions such as False Creek Flats, Burrard Inlet, and parts of the Fraser River delta. These areas are often used for industrial and residential purposes. Peat deposits which are the organic-rich water-saturated deposits are prevalent in parts of Richmond/lulu-island (which occupies part of the city) and other low-lying areas which can compress and settle over time, contributing to subsidence issues. The silt and clay sediments located along the Fraser River floodplain low down and delta are fine-grained deposits which are poor for building foundations but not generally prone to liquefaction during seismic events. Sand and silt on the other hand are typically found along the banks of the Fraser River and around areas of Richmond and other floodplain areas. This material is usually good for foundations but can liquify under seismic stress. Lastly, gravel and sand have a high liquefaction potential and are present in river channels and some floodplain regions. The latter sediments, although coarser and generally more stable, can still be affected by strong ground shaking.

In the upland areas, the Ice Age sediments are prevelant which were deposited during the Pleistocene epoch and these sediments are often resistant to liquefaction [2]. Thick Silt and clay are found in upland regions such as White Rock, and parts of the North Shore mountains. These sediments are remnants of glacial lakes and marine environments, often compacted and relatively stable. Sand deposits occur in various upland regions, including areas around the North Shore and parts of Burnaby Mountain, deposited by glacial meltwater streams and potentially unstable. Gravel and sand are found in areas like Capilano, Lynn Valley, and other upland stream valleys, providing good drainage but susceptible to shifting during seismic activity. Till is present throughout upland areas, including parts of the North Shore mountains and higher elevations of Burnaby, consisting of dense, unsorted glacial debris that is typically stable and resistant to erosion. Lastly, steepland sediments are found on the steep slopes of the North Shore mountains and other hilly areas. These are composed of a mix of materials, including rock fragments and soil, prone to landslides and erosion.

Bedrock in the Mountainous regions of West Vancouver and the North Shore was described to be anchored by several metres of till, sandy gravel or rock fragments and that less than 10% of the mountain area is actually exposed rock. Landslides could potentially be triggered here as a result of the steep slopes present [2]. Volcanic rock of basalt and andesite found at the northern edge of the Fraser Valley. Sandstone is present as scattered outcrops within Vancouver and the Greater Vancouver Region, and these layers are resistant to erosion. Granitic rock, located in the West Vancouver regions, is resistant to erosion and can form on steep mountain slopes, making it less of a concern for lowland areas in the event of an earthquake. Lastly, foliated sedimentary and volcanic rocks, which are the result of metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks, occur in the Cascade Mountains and form the small hills in the eastern Fraser Valley.

Understanding these geological settings is crucial for making decisions to prepare for and mitigate risks associated with seismic activity, particularly in regions with loose, water-saturated sediments such as peat, silt, and clay. Like other Canadian cities, Vancouver is relatively low-lying however exhibits complex interactions of sedimentation, erosion, and slope instability due to the unique geological landscape of the Fraser River delta, including areas like Richmond and parts of Delta [13]. Urban areas built on landfill, such as parts of downtown Vancouver and False Creek, also face significant earthquake hazards due to potential ground shaking and settlement.

Vulnerable Areas: Areas particularly vulnerable to earthquakes and subsequent liquifaction slope failures.

From Assessing the geological features of Vancouver, here is the geological anaylsis which outlines areas particulary vulnerable to earthquakes. Lowland regions such as False Creek Flats, downtown Vancouver, and the Fraser River Delta, encompassing Richmond and Lulu Island are the most vulnerable to earthquakes and subsequent liquefaction and slope failures [2]. These areas consist of loose, water-saturated sands and silts. During an earthquake, these more modern shallower sediments can lose their strength and transform into a fluid—a process known as liquefaction [7]. The overlying silt or clay layers can glide laterally towards slopes, causing ground cracking and damaging foundations of highways, bridges, and buildings which is an extreme hazard to the general public. This risk is increased in regions with extensive landfill material and organic-rich peat deposits, which are particularly susceptible to settlement and subsidence.

In the upland areas such as the North Shore mountains and Burnaby Mountain, Ice Age sediments like thick silt and clay, although being more resistant to liquefaction can still experience the ground shaking [2]. These areas face additional risks from landslides due to the steep slopes within the region which comprises of the steepland sediments, which include rock fragments and soil prone to erosion. Bedrock regions, while more stable, can experience landslides, especially where till, sandy gravel, or rock fragments overlay the rock. Understanding these vulnerabilities is crucial for urban planning and implementing effective mitigation strategies to enhance earthquake resilience in Vancouver.

As highlighted by Nolan (2022), softer sediments such as peat, silt, and clay, along with loose deposits, amplify seismic waves, which lead to increased shaking and potential building damage during an earthquake [14]. This aligns with Vancouver's varied terrain, where these materials are particularly susceptible. Areas with sand and gravel in floodplain regions also contribute to liquefaction risks during seismic events.

There are, of course, anomalies despite geological conditions seeming stable and relatively earthquake-proof, which can be seen with scenarios such as the Lions Bay rockslide on the Sea-to-Sky Highway (Lions Bay position within Vancouver illustrated in Figure 3 map in red) [15]. This area is underlain by Granitic rock whereby if not extensively fractured and faulted, is normally resistant to erosion [2]. The incident, occurred on 29th July 2008, highlights how pre-existing geological weaknesses, historical instability, environmental conditions, and human activities can collectively lead to significant slope failures even in areas presumed to be geologically stable. Despite ongoing construction efforts to upgrade the highway, the rockslide blocked crucial transportation routes, demonstrating that even well-understood and monitored regions can experience sudden and disruptive geological events. This would be accentuated especially in the face of a megathrust earthquake.

Figure 3- Location of Lions Bay.

Urban Development and sustainability strategies.

Learning from past:

Lessons learned from the Sumatra earthquake, such as the importance of early warning systems and robust emergency planning, are being applied in Vancouver to enhance earthquake preparedness [16]. In preparation for the suspected megathrust earthquake in Vancouver, the city is integrating seismic and GPS data for early warnings, improving building codes for earthquake-resistant structures, and developing emergency response plans which are specific to geologically vulnerable areas such as Richmond for example which aim to mitigate seismic risks effectively and ensure a greater overall public safety.

Infrastructure development considering the local geology: Examples of past and current developments happening to mitigate earthquake threats:

There is work being done within Vancouver to prepare for the "big one" (major earthquake scenario) [17]. Examples include earthquake-proofing water reservoirs in the Metro-Vancouver region. Reservoirs are being continuously enhanced to ensure they can provide water to the region following a major earthquake , with improvements such as strengthening roofs, thickening walls, and installing steel frames [18]. This is especially important for older infrastructure built before the 1990s when seismic codes were not as impactful or considered.

On top of retrofitting key infrastructure services such as water reservoirs, there are approaches being taken to assess earthquakes and enhance preparedness and mitigation methods through the seismic vulnerability and risk assessment of a 10-story cross-laminated timber (CLT) and reinforced concrete (RC) hybrid building to give one example[19]. The assessment incorporates advanced modeling techniques to evaluate the building's performance against various earthquake types and aftershocks. These efforts contribute significantly to the city's overall resilience against seismic events and emphasizes the importance of careful structural design and potential damage control/mitigation strategies for future considerations [19].

There is also being work done to physically strengthen structures against earthquakes. This strategy involves enhancing the structural integrity of buildings and infrastructure to withstand seismic forces. A notable example is the 15-year project in British Columbia to retrofit 800 schools which follow performance-based design standards with a focus on life safety. The guidelines aim to minimize the probability of structural collapse using advanced earthquake damage estimation techniques [20].

Overall, the building decisions which are made in earthquake-prone cities not necesarilly Vancouver incorporate local geology by considering soil dynamics and site-specific seismic effects [21]. For instance, the study on seismic site-city interaction analysis taken by Kato & Wang (2022), in Hong Kong emphasizes the influence of geological properties on the disturbances within the ground motion between super-tall buildings and underground structures [21]. Their research highlights the importance in understanding how soil characteristics affect wave trapping and amplification - This therefore allows engineers to alter building designs to accomadate and subsequently mitigate seismic risks.

Policies and Regulations: Current urban development policies in place to mitigate geological risks.

Alongside the physical infrastructure developments which are helping make Vancouver more sustainable in the face of earthquakes, there are emergency response programmes which have been developed. This strategy focuses on effective post-earthquake response to save lives and speed up recovery [20]. As stated in Finn (2011), I2SIM, a real-time post-earthquake decision model has been developed which which shows how essential services rely on each other and predicts the immediate effects of damage on the systems they support [20]. This allows for the optimal decision making strategies in real-time allowing for faster emergency actions and resource allocation.

Significant developments in geodatabases have created seismic microzonation maps (maps which aid the understanding of ground motion characteristics within a specific region due to local site conditions[22]) for the Metro Vancouver region using various measurements through real-world and theoretical comparisons from Hazards most likely as the Sumatra earthquake - an example is shown on Figure 4. [16] [23]. By collating geological, geophysical, and geotechnical data and using non-invasive seismic testing (HVSR), these maps analyze ambient seismic noise to gather subsurface data without disturbing the ground. Challenges in measuring subsurface conditions and minimizing distortions are managed using 3D layered earth models [23][2]. Future efforts focus on comprehensive regional mapping using non-invasive methods and 3D simulations to refine earthquake risk models. These initiatives, funded by a multi-year BC government project, underscore the geodatabase's role in precise seismic mapping and sustainable urban planning [10].

The reasons for incorporating these mitigation techniques are to ensure the sustainability of current lifestyles and to progress towards better conditions in regions affected by natural disasters. The techniques aim to reduce damage to physical systems, save lives, and facilitate rapid recovery.

Figure 4: Cascadia subduction Zone and future earthquake scenario.

Sustainability and Resilience strategies:

Building Codes and community standards which enhance earthquake resilience:

The 10-story CLT and RC hybrid building study mentioned previously, is a prime example of resilience strategies specifically designed to withstand the Vancouver’s seismicity [19]. Further South, on the transform San-Andreas fault within the San Francisco Bay Area, local governments and residents implement programs for earthquake preparedness and mitigation through coordinated research, planning, policy implementation and funding support which increases public awareness and readiness for earthquakes, thereby reducing potential casualties and damage [24] . Similarly, in Christchurch, New Zealand, the 'Sustainable Seismic Design' framework integrates sustainability principles with seismic design to enhance urban resilience, evaluating materials like Engineered Timber for their seismic resistance and environmental impact [25]. By incorporating sustainability into seismic design, Christchurch promotes environmentally friendly construction practices that also ensure safety. The evaluation of new materials like Engineered Timber for seismic resistance encourages the use of sustainable resources in construction, potentially lowering environmental impact and ensures that urban areas can potentially recover quickly recover from earthquakes, maintaining city-function and reducing long-term economic impacts. Vancouver can implement earthuake resilience strategies from both these regions to enhance its own sustainability and resilience.

British Columbia’s Initiatives:

British Columbia (B.C.) enhances its earthquake preparedness and resilience through several key initiatives [12]. The Provincial Earthquake Immediate Response Strategy strengthens provincial coordination for swift and organized disaster response. The School Seismic Mitigation Program, in collaboration with Engineers and Geoscientists B.C. (EGBC), assesses and enhances public schools' safety against seismic risks. 'Exercise Coastal Response' is a provincial training exercise refining emergency response protocols. These are three ways in which "B.C. is taking action" in preparing communities for earthquake scenarios (Government of British Columbia, n.d, p.1 [12]).

To understand and manage earthquake risks, B.C. provides tools like hazard maps and modelling studies and this is beneficial for those who are not as geologically literate and gives them access and explanations to the regions they reside in and the potential risks which comes along with this. The British Columbia Smart Infrastructure Monitoring System (BCSIMS) is a seismic monitoring network offering real-time data and analysis through its Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) system and Strong Ground Motion Network (SGMN). There are interactive simplified hazard and seismic maps help communities understand their risk exposure top varying earthquake scenarios [26]. Additionally, the RiskProfiler tool from Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), similarly allows for the exploration of potential impacts from specific earthquake scenarios and their effects over time [27]. These efforts collectively aim to enhance community safety and resilience against earthquakes.

Figure 5 - The message from the Government of BC when earthquake occurs.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this project investigates the geological complexities of Vancouver and the implications which it causes for urban development. This emphasizes the urgent need for sustainability and resilience, particularly in the face of seismic hazards like earthquakes. Vancouver's location within the Cascadia Subduction Zone presents significant risks, necessitating a thorough understanding of its diverse geology. Through detailed analysis from varying governmental bodies, geological scientists, urban planners, environmental scientists, emergency management officials and community organizations, this study and research identifies vulnerable areas prone to liquefaction and slope failures, offering crucial insights for sustainable planning. These contributions from the wide array of experts ensure there is resilience in Vancouver's urban environment at the intersection of geological challenges and earthquake threats.

Learning from past impactful earthquakes, such as those in Sumatra and San Francisco, is essential. Enhancing building codes, adopting innovative construction techniques, and refining policies are crucial steps to bolster the city's earthquake resilience. Continued research should focus on advancing seismic monitoring and construction technologies to ensure a more sustainable future for Vancouver. These efforts will help create a resilient urban environment that can withstand the geological challenges posed by the region’s geological setting.

Figure 6 - The City of Vancouver and the vast urbanization and development which has taken place.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (June 2 2024). "Cascadia Subduction Zone". Pacific Northwest Seismic Network. Retrieved June 2 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 Turner, R. J. W., Clague, J. J., Groulx, B. J. & Journeay, J. M. (1998). GeoMap Vancouver, geological map of the Vancouver Metropolitan area. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File, 3511. [1]
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 J. Clague, John (May 2002). "The Earthquake Threat in Southwestern British Columbia: A Geologic Perspective". Natural Hazards. 26 (1): 7–33. doi:10.1023/A:1015208408485 – via ResearchGate.
  4. ↑ Tung, Dorian. "IS VANCOUVER READY FOR THE BIG ONE?". UBC Public Scholars Initiative. Retrieved 08/06/2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Armstrong, Dr John E. (1990). Vancouver Geology. Vancouver: Geological Association of Canada.
  6. ↑ Government of Canada (2021-04-06). "Questions and Answers on Megathrust Earthquakes". Government of Canada. Retrieved 12th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (June 2 2024). "Liquefaction Hazard Maps". Pacific Northwest Seismic Network. Retrieved June 2 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Kuraoka, S.; Rainer, J. H. (June 1996). "Damage to water distribution system caused by the 1995 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu earthquake". Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 23 (3): 665–677. line feed character in |title= at position 65 (help)
  9. ↑ Clague, John (1997). "EVIDENCE FOR LARGE EARTHQUAKES AT THE CASCADIA SUBDUCTION ZONE". Review of Geophysics. 35 (4): 439–460.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 City of Vancouver (Sunday 2nd June 2024). "Earthquake impacts". City of Vancouver. Retrieved Sunday 2nd June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  11. ↑ Canadian Geoscience Education Network (11th June 2024). "Geoscape - Vancouver. Earthquake!! On Shaky Ground. Plates & Quakes". CGEN Archive. Retrieved 11th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 British Columbia Climate Ready (Sunday 2nd June 2024). "Earthquakes". British Columbia Climate Ready BC. Retrieved Sunday 2nd June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  13. ↑ Hart, Bruce S.; Barrie, J. Vaughn (December 1995). "Environmental Geology of the Fraser Delta, Vancouver". Geoscience Canada. 22 (4): 172–183.
  14. ↑ Nolan, Joe (May 6 2022). "The Effects of Soil Type on Earthquake Damage". WSRB. Retrieved 12th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  15. ↑ Petley, Dave (1 AUGUST 2008). "Rockslide on the Sea to Sky Highway in British Columbia". Advancing Earth and Space Sciences. Retrieved 12th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 F. Cassidy, John (March 2015). "The 2004 Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami: Lessons Learned in Subduction Zone Science and Emergency Management for the Cascadia Subduction Zone". Pure & Applied Geophysics. 172 (3–4): 835–847. doi:10.1007/s00024-014-1023-4 – via ProQuest.
  17. ↑ Little, Simon (June 11 2024). "Why the 'big one' earthquake threat to B.C. may be bigger than previously thought". Global News. Retrieved 13th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  18. ↑ Ghania, Yasmine (Mar 18, 2023). "How Metro Vancouver is earthquake-proofing its water reservoirs in preparation for the 'Big One'". CBC. Retrieved June 12 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Tesfamariam, Solomon; Goda, Katsuichiro (May 2022). "Risk assessment of CLT-RC hybrid building: Consideration of earthquake types and aftershocks for Vancouver, British Columbia". Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering. 156: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2022.107240 – via Elsevier Science Direct. line feed character in |title= at position 71 (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Finn, Liam W. D. (2011). "Seismic Hazards Mitigating Seismic Threats to Sustainability". In Lai, Susumu (ed.). Geotechnics and Earthquake Geotechnics Towards Global Sustainability. 15. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 21–36. ISBN 978-94-007-0469-5. line feed character in |chapter= at position 16 (help)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Kato, Bence; Wnag, Gang (2022). "Seismic site–city interaction analysis of super‑tall buildings surrounding an underground station: a case study in Hong Kong" (PDF). Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 20: 1431–1454. doi:10.1007/s10518-021-01295-7 – via SpringerLink.
  22. ↑ METRO VANCOUVER SEISMIC MICROZONATION PROJECT (14th June 2024). "What are microzonation maps?". METRO VANCOUVER SEISMIC MICROZONATION PROJECT. Retrieved 14th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Molnar, Sheri; Assaf, Jamal; Sirohey, Aamna; Raj Adhikari, Sujan. "Overview of local site effects and seismic microzonation mapping in Metropolitan Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada". Engineering Geology. 270: 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105568 – via Elsevier Science Direct. line feed character in |title= at position 68 (help)
  24. ↑ Beeler, Peter. "Resilience". Association of Bay Area Governments. Retrieved 12th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  25. ↑ Karanja, Kuria Kevin; Kegyes-Brassai, Orsolya (2023). "Urban Vulnerability and Earthquake Risks Incorporating Sustainability". CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS. AIDIC Servizi S.r.l. 107: 607–612. doi:10.3303/CET23107102.
  26. ↑ British Columbia - Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (13th June 2024). "BCSIMS". BCSIMS. Retrieved 12th June2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Natural Resources Canada (13th June 2024). "Earthquake risk information for emergency management and planning in Canada". RiskProfiler. Retrieved 12th June 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)


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