Course:EOSC311/2024/EOSC 311 geology and my major

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Introduction

Statement of Connection

Many aspects of psychology are influenced by geological changes that have shaped the environment to which humans have adapted over millions of years. These changes are crucial for understanding the evolution of human behaviour and mental processes. By examining specific examples throughout history, we can uncover meaningful connections between geology and psychological development.

Geological events such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climatic shifts have had profound impacts on human societies, often leading to migrations, changes in living conditions, and psychological stressors[1].

Why I chose this topic

In the context of schizophrenia, understanding the role of environmental factors, including geological aspects, is essential. Lead exposure, often resulting from natural deposits and human industrial activities, is one example where geology intersects with mental health. I wanted to delve deeper into this subject to underline the importance of examining environmental factors, including geographical elements when examining mental disorders.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a serious neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by symptoms such as psychosis, leading to significant negative health implications. Affecting up to 1% of the population[2] , this disorder encompasses positive, negative and disorganization syndromes. Despite comprehensive research on the subject, the pathomechanisms[2] of the disorder are not fully understood, with limited treatment options available for patients. The current antipsychotics only remediate the positive symptoms (e.g. hallucinations), but cognitive and negative symptoms are not treated[2]. Several genetic and environmental risk factors contribute to the development of this disorder, but the biggest one is being related to someone with this disorder, with studies showing that 80% of the variance in liability to schizophrenia is due to additive genetic effects [3], with other environmental factors such as the place and time we were born in, pregnancy and birth complications as well as developmental problems in childhood all playing a role [3].

Etiological factors in Schizophrenia

The two big factors; genes and the environment, as well as how they interact with each other appear to influence the development of schizophrenia in individuals[3]. Various studies show that many factors in the gene-environmental interactions change the risks of people developing schizophrenia. For example, a study shows that an adopted away off-spring of schizophrenic parents is less at risk than the children who stayed with the schizophrenic parents, suggesting that the complicated nature of the disorder makes it extremely challenging to determine which factor plays a bigger and more definitive role in the development of the disorder[3].

Among the many environmental factors that determine the risk of this disorder, meta-analysis research has shown that exposure to high concentrations of heavy metals such as lead and chromium may be associated with an elevated risk of schizophrenia[4]. Chronic exposure to metal has been shown to cause severe neurological and cognitive implications, which may have long-term effects[4].

Lead & its Association with Schizophrenia

Recent research has begun to highlight geological factors, such as exposure to neurotoxicants and heavy metals and their association with schizophrenia. While the link between lead and its association with lower cognitive development and psychosis, as a neurotoxin, has been recognized in the medical field since the early 20th century, its implications on the development of schizophrenia have only been studied very recently.

A study done by Opler et al., in which exposure to δ-aminolevulinic acid in maternal serum was used as a biomarker, highlights the possible association between prenatal lead exposure and schizophrenia. The study illustrated that exposure to lead during development has been shown to alter genes and protein expression of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor or NMDAR, in the hippocampus brain region of young rats. Studies have shown that NMDAR antagonists trigger negative as well as cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. Since the hippocampus, which is crucial for learning and memory, is the most affected region in schizophrenia, these findings suggest a significant association between lead exposure and the development of schizophrenia.

Mechanisms Involved in Lead Toxicity in the Central Nervous System (CNS): Once Pb enters the CNS, it binds to voltage-gated calcium channels and decreases the transportation of calcium ions. Lead interacts with Ca2+ binding sites, which eventually decreases the activation of post-synaptic receptors. Lead forms Pb-NMDA complexes, which alters the intracellular levels of Ca2+ in the postsynaptic neuron. In the end, Pb alters the redox environment, promoting cell death.[5]

Additionally, there is evidence which shows the association of lead with dopamine neurotransmission and "analogous abnormalities" [6] in the brain's white and gray matter of the prefrontal cortex, and the anterior cingulate cortex[7]. Subcortical dopaminergic hyperactivity, caused by selective loss of parvalbumin-positive GABAergic interneuron is also witnessed as an effect of exposure to lead, which is similar to what is observed in schizophrenia. [6] Lead, among many other metals, accumulates in our teeth, which acts as a chemical repository, which increases the collective exposure to lead and shows stronger associations with health implications, as compared to bone lead concentrations.[6]

Another study reveals that lead disrupts mitochondrial functions, which has been shown to be associated with psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder[7]. A majority of the studies revealed that consistent exposure to lead, a potent neurotoxin, may affect numerous cell functions and may inhibit the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin[7].

A study done in the northern region of India, researchers found relatively higher blood lead levels in workers in battery industries, which put them at a higher risk of developing schizophrenia [8]. The mean Pb level in the experimental group, who were exposed to the battery industry (35.04 ± 13.39 (μg/dl)) was found to be significantly higher than the control group's ( 5.53 ± 1.75 (μg/dl)), who did not work in the battery industry[8]. The study found that those battery workers who were exposed for ≥10 years have decreased hemoglobin levels in the body and they all have increased risk of mental disorders, irritation, confusion, breakdown in thinking and poor emotional responses, which suggests a risk of moderate as well as severe schizophrenia[8].

Evaluation of this Connection

Negative associations of increased risk of lead exposure are greater for children from lower-income families [9].

Geological factors play a crucial role in understanding the association between lead exposure and schizophrenia. Natural geological formations as well as human activities can influence the distribution and concentration of lead in the environment. Areas with high levels of lead in soil, water, and air due to geological deposits or industrial pollution expose populations to neurotoxicants [10].

Socioeconomic factors such as family income and parents' education play an important role in determining lead exposure for schoolchildren[10]. Studies have shown that lower SES families report high lead levels as well as lower cognitive abilities, which was influenced by many factors such as the children playing outside, their diets, poor nutrition, as well as the geographical location of their homes (length of every road within a 200m radius of the house)[10].

Given the prevalence of neurological disorders, it is essential to look at the factors which may play a role in this trend, the increase in lead poisoning being one, and to explore the steps to be taken to limit this. By studying the geological origins and environmental pathways of lead, we can better understand and mitigate its impact on public health.

Conclusion

Geological changes over millions of years have shaped human evolution and have influenced human development, both physically and psychologically. Understanding the role of environmental factors is crucial in the fight against mental disorders. Moreover, investigating the distribution of heavy metals and recognizing how the general public is exposed to them are essential steps in preventing unintended exposure.

Future research should aim to explore these connections further. This includes looking at historical data, geological records, and epidemiological studies to find patterns and correlations that can provide deeper insights into the interplay between minerals and our mental health. Thoroughly examining all potential causes of the disorder can lead to the development of more effective treatment strategies that specifically target these environmental factors. Additionally, we can improve schizophrenia treatments which include prenatal care to manage the early effects of lead exposure.

References

  1. ↑ Cianconi, Paolo; Betro, Sophia; Janiri, Luigi (March 6 2020). "The Impact of Climate Change on Mental Health: A Systematic Descriptive Review". Front Psychiatry. 11. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00074 – via PubMed Central. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Stepnicki, Piotr; Kondej, Magda; Kaczor, Agnieszka (August 20 2018). "Current Concepts and Treatments of Schizophrenia". National Library of Medicine. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Kelly, Jane; Murray, Robin (September 2000). "What Risk Factors Tell Us About the Causes of Schizophrenia and Related Psychoses". Current Psychiatry Reports: 378–385 – via Springer Link.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ma, Jiahui; Yan, Lailai; Guo, Tongjun; Yang, Siyu; Guo, Chen; Liu, Yaqiong; Xie, Qing; Wang, Jingyu (30 October 2019). "Association of Typical Toxic Heavy Metals with Schizophrenia". IJERPH. 16 (21). doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214200 Check |doi= value (help).
  5. ↑ "Cognitive Impairment Induced by Lead Exposure during Lifespan: Mechanisms of Lead Neurotoxicity". MDPI. 9. 28 January 2021. doi:10.3390/toxics9020023.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Modabbernia, Amirhossein; Arora, Manish; Reichenberg, Abraham (April 2016). "Environmental exposure to metals, neurodevelopment, and psychosis". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 28 (2): 243–249. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000332 – via Ovid.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Orisakwe, Orish Ebere (August 2014). "The Role of Lead and Cadmium in Psychiatry". North American Journal of Medical Sciences. 6: 370–376. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.139283 – via PubMed Central.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Sharma, SV; Atam, I; Verma, A; Kumar, P; Murthy, RC; Begum, H; Atam, V (September 30, 2015). "Lead (Pb) Toxicity Trigger Schizophrenia in Battery Workers of North Region of India". Journal of Neurological Disorders. 2: 5. doi:10.15744/2454-4981.2.302. ISSN 2454-4981 – via Annex Publishers.
  9. ↑ Marshall, Andrew; Betts, Samantha; Kan, Eric; McConnell, Rob; Lanphear, Bruce; Sowell, Elizabeth R (13 January 2020). "Association of lead-exposure risk and family income with childhood brain outcomes". Nature Medicine. 26: 91–97 – via Nat Med.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Kim, Eunjung; Kwon, Ho-jang; Ha, Mina; Lim, Myung Ho; Yoo, Seung-jin; Paik, Ki Chung (2018 July). "How Does Low Socioeconomic Status Increase Blood Lead Levels in Korean Children?". Environmental Research and Public Health. 15. doi:10.3390/ijerph15071488 – via PubMed Central. Check date values in: |date= (help)


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