Course:EOSC311/2020/Geotourism and the Great Barrier Reef

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Introduction & Statement of Connection

In January 2019, I was given the opportunity to go on an exchange semester at the University of New South Wales. This led me to do lots of exploring including going to Cairns to go snorkel the Great Barrier Reef. After getting the opportunity to snorkel the reef I learnt an abundance of information about how coral reefs are being heavily impacted by global warming and anthropogenic pollution. When snorkeling, I was able to witness these consequences first hand as many areas of the Great Barrier Reef were considered dead zones or had areas that had suffered from coral bleaching. After learning the importance of the Great Barrier Reef and how it contributes to the world both economically and ecologically, I wanted to express the seriousness of preserving the GBR as well as coral reef communities worldwide.

As a marketing major I recognize the importance that marketing has in obtaining consumers, maintaining existing consumer relationships, and being able to keep customers engaged. Attempting to preserve the Great Barrier Reef and corals is a worldwide effort as the biggest threat is global climate change. Geotourism companies have an important role of ensuring the education of their consumers about the risks and threats to coral reefs and raising awareness of possible solutions and contributions that can help save the reefs.

If Geotourism companies had a good understanding of the geology, paleontology, and geochemistry of reefs it could help provide information on why reefs are being affected. This would enable these companies to create marketing plans that acknowledges the importance of spreading awareness of how coral reefs are in danger, coral reef initiatives, and ensuring tourists follow protocols when snorkeling and viewing the reefs to minimize and prevent the destruction of these delicate systems.

What are Coral Reefs?

Coral Biology and Anatomy

Anatomy of Coral Polyps

Corals are considered an invertebrate animal and belong to the phylum Cnidaria.[1] An individual coral is called a polyp and in many areas of the ocean these polyps live in massive groups making coral colonies. [1] These colonies are formed after an individual coral goes through “budding” which is when the polyp replicates itself into another polyp.[1] Corals can be divided into two groups which are hard corals and soft corals. Hard corals are reef-building and are able to produce skeletons made from calcium carbonate. On the other hand, soft corals only create a small amount of calcium carbonate in order to keep its form. A way to be able to tell the difference between hard and soft corals is that soft corals contain 8 tentacles while hard corals contain tentacles in the multiples of 6.[1] Coral polpys have many stinging cells called cnidoblasts on its tentacles helping coral sting or kill prey.[1]

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are ecosystems that exist underwater and contain hard corals that are reef-building. These hard corals can form these colonies because they make skeletons made from calcium carbonate that allow the polyps to attach together.[2]Even though soft corals are not reef building they can still be attached to parts of the reef. Coral reefs become colourful due to the fact that coral polyps live in symbiosis with an algae called zooxanthellae.[1] The zooxanthellae helps provide energy, food, and nutrients to the coral, however, corals can use their tentacles and cnidoblasts to capture food as well.[1]

Survival and Growth of Corals

This picture displays how coral and zooxanthellae live in symbiosis

In order for corals to be able to form, grow, and survive there are certain conditions that need to be met. All corals need sunlight, the amount of light needed may vary by species.[3] Hard corals which depend on the symbiosis with zooxanthellae needs sunlight in order to photosynthesize.[3] Corals also need clear and warm salt water conditions in the ocean environment.[3] Clear water is important as murky water that has a high amount of sediments will lessen the amount of sunlight the corals can obtain.[3] Warmer temperatures are vital for corals to survive.The temperatures needed for survival are different for a variety of species. Corals can be found all over the world but reef-building corals can only form in tropical and subtropical waters as the warmer water helps photosynthesis.[3] Salt water is another condition needed for corals to survive and is why corals are never found in parts of the oceans where freshwater sources like rivers drain.[3]

Types of Coral Reefs

There are four principle types of reefs that form:

  1. Fringing Reefs form on the edge of coastlines from islands and continents.[4] These types of reefs are comprised of reef flats and reef slopes. These reefs extend from the shore outwards right underneath the surface of the water.[5] The reef flat can be seen closest to the shore and coastlines while the reef slope which is the part that consists of the most marine life is facing the ocean. [4][5]   
  2. Barrier reefs are parallel and border the shore, but unlike fringing reefs they do not grow from the shoreline.[4] Instead barrier reefs are divided from the shoreline by lagoons.[6]
  3. Atolls form reef structures that are circular around lagoons and are usually in areas out in the ocean with no landmasses in its proximity.[4][7] When volcanic islands are fully submerged under the water and there were fringing reefs present around the islands it can form an atoll.[6] An atoll is formed when these fringing reefs still grow after the volcanic islands have sunk which forms the ring around the lagoon.[4]
  4. Patch reefs grow from the base of an island platform or continental shelf and look like isolated groups of corals that are close to one another but are split up from rings of sand.[4][8] They can usually be seen in lagoons that contain shallow water and are surrounded by another type of reef.[8] Patch reefs grow in shallow depths of water, around ten to twenty feet.[8] These type of reefs can only form on a surfaces that are solid such as rocks explaining why there are spaces between these reefs.[8]
Images of the Types of Coral Reefs
Fringing Reef
Barrier Reef
Atoll Reef
Patch Reef

Corals Through Time

Main coral groups through time

Palaeozoic Era

Lower Cambrian Period

In the early Cambrian which was around 520-530 million years ago reef like structures appeared on Earth. [9] These reef like structures were created from archaeocyatha which are marine organisms that contributed to the formation of the first reef structures on our planet. [10] These organisms are shaped like horns and bear a resemblance to calcareous sponges and contributed to reef building for a 10 million year period before going extinct.[11] After this period reef-building was formed from cyanobacteria, stromatolites, and Anthozoans that were similar to coral.[9] These all grew in shallow waters that were also dominated by trilobites, a now extinct species of anthropods, and a variety of molluscs. [9][12]

Archaeocyatha Structure
Trilobite fossil from the cambrian period

Late Cambrian- Middle Ordovician Period

During the Late Cambrian period ecosystems contained complex algae, reef communities abundant with invertebrates, and diversified reef biota.[9] Reef biota are the portion of the reef structures that are living. [13] These ecosystems continued into the Middle Ordovician period which was around 460 million years ago. [9] However, in the Early Ordovician an abundance of stromatoporoids and tabulate corals had first appeared.[9] Stromatoporoids were sea sponges that were reef builders and tabulate corals were colonial corals that also contributed to reef building and had an appearance that looked like honeycomb or chainlinks.[14] [15] Later into the Middle Ordovician period Rugose corals made their first appearance and the quantity and diversity of these corals was quickly expanding.[9] Rugose corals were solitary or colonial and their appearance often resembled a bull’s horn.[15]

Stromatoporoid Sponge Fossil from the Ordovician Period
Tabulate Coral fossil (Halysites catenularia species) present in the Ordovician Period
Two solitary Rugose Corals found in limestone from the Ordovician Period

Late Ordovician- Silurian Period

A Silurian reef in Greenland which has risen above sea level. We can see from this picture how large Silurian reefs were able to become.

In the Late Ordovician which was around 450 million years ago the rugose and tabulate corals that were seen in the Middle Ordovician significantly diversified.[9] These corals were present in waters that were shallow and constructed coral patch reefs. These type of reefs are small in size and grow on island platforms and continental shelves. [16] In this period stromatoporoids were also present as well as other types of sea sponges and calcareous red algae.[9] The reefs that formed did not have strong wave resistance and solid platforms, however, the stromatoporoids and tabulate corals were able to create large colonies that were quite a few meters in diameter.[9] It is hypothesized that these reef structures were created from symbiosis between animals and algal and these structures are the oldest reef communities that have existed on our planet.[9] Symbiosis is when two organisms have a relationship to each other where one or both organisms benefit.[17] The corals, sea sponges, and algae mentioned above combined to create a variety of reefs in tropical areas worldwide for a period of 150 million years which also led into the Silurian period.[9] However, at around 435 million years ago the Ordovician-Silurian mass extinction event had occurred.[18] This mass extinction is said to have happened due to the formation of the supercontinent called Pangaea.[18] The formation affected the circulation of the oceans around the world which was attributable to the large pieces of land drifting in the ocean. This had caused an ice age where glaciers started to form affecting sea levels and the water temperature in the oceans.[18] Approximately, 85% of marine species had become extinct and although corals survived they were affected because important members to their ecosystems had disappeared. [18][19] Surprisingly, the coral, reef structures, and ecosystems that were present in the Silurian period after the mass extinction had occurred were similar to the Ordovician period.[20] At around 435 million years ago in the Silurian period reefs had become abundant as well as diverse and a portion of the reefs were able to become enormous in size.[9] These reefs were also considered to be the first carbonate platforms that were wave resistant on our planet.[9]

Middle to Late Devonian Period

At around 370 million years ago, around the middle Devonian and late Devonian period reefs in the Paleozoic era achieved maximum development. [9] The remains of the reefs from this period that can be massive in size and have the same characteristics structurally when comparing them to modern reefs seen now.[9] The reefs in the middle to late Devonian period have a wide variety of different of different organisms that were frame builders.[9] Some of these frame builders were similar to those seen in previous periods like stomatoporoids, tabulate, rugose coral, and cyanobacteria. Another framebuilder was microbialites which can be defined as structures that resemble rocks and are constructed from a large amount of microbes.[21] During this period of time scleractinian corals first appeared on our planets which are the corals that are abundant in coral reefs today. [18]  Near the end of this period the Late Devonian extinction had occurred. Scientists are still unsure how long this extinction event occurred for and whether or not the extinction involved two sharp extinctions or several small ones.[22] The one thing that is clear is that mainly marine life was affected including the organisms that helped build the massive reefs during the Devonian period.[22] This included the stomatoporoid sponges, rugose corals, and tabulate corals. The scleractinian corals, also called stony corals, that appeared in this period disappeared because of the extinction event and do not appear again until the Mesozoic era.[22] The extinction event made coral reefs during the late Devonian period rare around the world.[18] It is still unknown what caused the Late Devonian extinction but the hypotheses is that sea level fluctuations and the quick depletion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are to blame.[18]

Carboniferous-Permian Period

The Carboniferous period contained reef like structures that consisted in moderately deeper waters after the devonian extinction occurred.[9] The ocean environment was still recovering from the low temperatures in the ocean, changing sea-level, and other factors that influenced coral reef formation. When time moved forward to the Later Carboniferous period and the Early Permian reef biota was being replaced by phylloid.[9] Phylloid is a leaf like algae that was calcareous and was present in the Late Paleozoic era and it dominated the Late Carboniferous.[23] The structures in the Late Permian period contained frondose byrozans which are a marine invertebrate, a variety of sea sponges, algae, and tubiphytes.[9][24] Corals were rarely found in the Permian period.[9] At around 252 million years ago, which was the End Permian period a mass extinction occurred called the Permian Triassic extinction which was the biggest mass extinction that ever occurred on Earth. [18][9] When this event occurred 96% of all marine species became extinct including all corals. It us unknown how this extinction had occurred but it is hypothesized that reef biota disappeared likely because of the effects of ocean acidification, anoxia which was caused from large scale volcanism, increased levels of carbon dioxide, and the reduction of sea levels.[18]

Mesozoic Era

Triassic Period

After the Permian Triassic Extinction event reef building had ceased for 12-14 million years.[9] Stomotolites were still present in the ocean but reef like structures did not appear again until the Middle Triassic. [9] In the Late Triassic, massive reefs came back to existence and were contained scleractinian corals and were prominent in the Tethys Sea.[9] The Tethys sea is a tropical ocean that had existed between the supercontinents Gondwana and Laurasia.[25] The end of the Triassic period also experienced a mass extinction which greatly affected the coral reefs in the Tethys sea causing them to disappear.[9] It is believed that this extinction was caused when the supercontinent of Pangea was breaking apart as it created large scale volcanism, large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions, and the effects on anoxic conditions from rapid sea-level changes.[9][18] After this extinction event reef structures and buildings halted again for 6-8 million years.[9]

Jurassic Period

This map displays how corals were forming and were mostly concentrated at the Tethys Sea during the Jurassic period

After the Triassic extinctions, the Jurassic period contained low numbers of diverse scleractinian corals.[9] Reefs in the early Jurassic are extremely rare worldwide and any coral genera that had existed in the Triassic no longer existed.[9] Reef development was extremely slow during the Jurassic period and nothing occurred until the Middle Jurassic. During the Middle Jurassic reef structures were seen again in the Tethys Sea near Europe and the Mediterranean regions.[9] The reef development that had happened here was due to warming temperatures and flooding that occurred in shallow water around continental shelves.[9] Other than these areas reef development was scarce especially in the ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangea called the Panthalassa.[9][26]

Cretaceous Period

The Early Cretaceous which was around 145 million years ago had extreme changes within coral communities even though there was no extinction that had occurred in the beginning of this period.[9]Corals were replaced by rudist bivalves, making corals no longer the dominant reef biota in structures. Rudist bivales were a type of mollusc and they were responsible for the majority of reef building in the Early cretaceous over a 30 million year period.[9] Within this 30 million year period, zooxanthellate corals were also present but remained in deeper water habitats compared to the rudist bivalves. The reefs during this time have a close resemblance to fringing reefs which are seen today. The rudist bivales to hosted other endosymbionts which contained a lower amount of aragonite within their shells which makes them less likely to be destroyed due to acidification compared to corals.[9] Unlike the other periods, continental movements were not the likely cause of the changes in the coral community and it is was most like constant environmental changes due to other reasons.[9] During the Middle Cretaceous period there was large scale volcanism causing large amounts of carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere, fluctuating sea-levels and a build-up of organic matter.[9] Together these created acidic ocean conditions and in the Late Cretaceous there were extreme changes in sea level which caused periods of flooding.[9] This flooding covered up to 40% of the continents which made the Tethys Ocean massive. No one is sure how these environmental changes could have affected the development of coral reef structures but these changes would have definitely impacted reef development. At the End of the Cretaceous period an extinction occurred called the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction. This event happed around 65 million years ago and was caused by a large meteor that hit Earth which ended up forming the Gulf of Mexico.[18] The impact of this crator would have caused a huge dust cloud to form which covered the Earth reducing sunlight which consequently caused 80% of all species on Earth at the time to go extinct. [27][28] Photosynthesizing organisms were greatly affected because of the reduced sunlight and because many of the corals in this period were dependent on zooxanthellae which are photosynthetic this impacted the survival of corals. This extinction event caused all corals around the world to disappear.

Rudist reef that has been fossilized and is from the Cretaceous Period.
Crescent shaped rudist corals in the Cretaceous period

Cenozoic Era

Paleocene- Eocene period

After the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction reefs did not appear anywhere on Earth until 65 million years later.[9] At the end of the Paleocene a severe global warming event occurred which heated the planet an entire six degrees Celsius. This event was called the Paleocene/Eocene Thermal Maximum. This warming was due to a large amount of gas hydrates in the atmosphere like methane and carbon dioxide and are strong enough to escalate the warming of the planet at a rapid pace. This event caused many coral species to disappear.[9] Eocene reefs existed in large areas but did not preserve well. In the Mid-Eocene period corals disappeared again for unknown reasons. At the time however, the Tethys Sea had blockages which contributed to reef development coming to a halt. At around 20 million years ago corals were developing and the Great Barrier Reef was formed off the Australian coast.[9]

Miocene/ Pleistocene

Corals continued to flourish during the Miocene period but during the Pleistocene period around 3 million years ago the central American seaway closed off splitting the coral faunas from the Indo-pacific region and the Caribbean region.[9] Another event that occurred during the Pleistocene was a glaciation which halted reef development in the eastern Pacific and Caribbean regions.[9] Glaciation led to lower sea levels which caused many corals to become exposed above the water periodically leading to corals becoming vulnerable.

Modern day Scleractinian coral reefs. This picture demonstrates the diversity of corals in modern day.

Modern day

The majority of the coral reefs worldwide are made from scleractinian corals. These reef building corals work together with zooxanthellae to form calcium carbonate skeletons.[9] Many of the reefs today are massive the largest one being the Great Barrier Reef. However, like we can see in Earth’s geological past global warming and environmental changes are also affecting our coral reef populations today. Scientists predict if global warming continues on an upward trend many corals can become extinct in the next few decades and not return for millions of years.[9]

Importance of Coral Fossils

Coral growth rings which are used to determine the age of coral fossils

It is important to study fossils as they provide information on what Earth was like in the past. Coral fossils are important because they contain information on what the Earth’s climate was like during specific time periods. Corals are sensitive to environmental changes and make great climate indicators.[29] This information can help scientists understand how corals will be affected by the climate change we are witnessing now and in the future. Corals can record hundreds of years of climate change through chemical proxies and stable isotopes.[29] The chemical composition of corals is affected by the surrounding ocean environment and can provide clues to environmental conditions that were present when these corals were living, like temperature and ocean acidity.[29] The chemical proxies are recorded in the corals growth rings.[29] These growth rings help determine the age of the coral fossils and provide information about the climate.[29] Coral fossils also provide other information like how long days were in the past, how Earth was rotating, and diurnal cycles.[29] After studying a fossil from the Denovian period and examining the coral growth rings scientists discovered that one year during this period was equal to 400 days.[30]

The Great Barrier Reef

Formation of the Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier Reef is approximately twenty million years old. Overtime, the reef has changed and evolved with the current reef being constructed around 6000 to 8000 years ago.[31] The current Great Barrier reef was formed after the last ice age on our planet started to diminish causing a change in sea level and temperatures in the ocean and on land.[31] The reef was built on the debris of Australia’s largest mountain range called the Great Dividing Range. When the reef was first forming it was building on the bases of the mountains[31]. During this time period the Great Dividing Range were considered to be continental islands. As sea levels rose over time, corals kept growing eventually rising on the mountains.[31] Later on, the mountains were completely underwater, and it left small islands, barrier reefs and atoll reefs.[31]

This diagram demonstrates how the Great Barrier Reef formed after a glacial period ended. We can see how the Great Barrier Reef started to form as the sea level rises.
Birds eye view of what the Great Barrier Reef looks like in modern day.

Economic Importance of Coral Reefs

There are many economic benefits that the Great Barrier Reef provides for Australia. For starters, the Great Barrier Reef is worth a total of $56 billion dollars and provides approximately 64,000 jobs in Australia and $6.4 billion to the Australian economy.[32] The reefs provide coastal protection by preventing the erosion of coastlines. Coral reefs provide coastal protection saving millions of dollars for countries that do not need other artificial constructions to prevent their coastlines from erosion.[33] Reefs have unique structures that are able to absorb wave energy which also helps protect coastlines from storms. Some countries on our planet would not exist if it were not for coastal protection like the Maldives. It protects homes on shorelines and ecosystems between the reefs and shores. The Great Barrier Reef also provides an important food resource for approximately 1 billion people across the globe.[34] Many federally regulated fisheries in different countries depend on coral reefs as fish spend part of their life cycle at coral reefs. Coral reefs also provide economies with billions of dollar from the tourism industry. Millions of people every year go to the Great Barrier Reef to dive or snorkel. Tourism makes up $29 billion of the total asset value of the Great Barrier Reef.[32] Coral reefs also protect beaches which provide the economy with money from businesses like resorts and restaurants located at these beaches.[33] Another way coral reefs contribute to the economy is through medicine. There are some coral reef species that contain chemical compounds that help protect them when predators attack.[34] These compounds have the potential to contribute to the world’s pharmaceutical industry. Many marine organisms that depend on the coral reef also contribute to medicine and help treat diseases like cancer and bacterial infections.[33] Corals also have skeletons that are comparable to the bones we have in our bodies and therefore can be used as bone grafts.[33]

Ecological Importance of Coral Reefs

Coral reef communities play a very important role in the ocean environment. For many marine species coral reefs are important for breeding, spawning, and feeding.[34] The Great Barrier Reef is the biggest living structure on our planet and it supplies a habitat to approximately 9000 marine species.[35] Coral reefs also provide an important source of nitrogen to the marine food web and assist in the slowdown of global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide. Coral reefs provide a source of fixed nitrogen that is important in marine ecosystems.[36] Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is not usable to other organisms in the ocean until it undergoes nitrogen fixation and coral reefs play a role in this cycle.[36] Coral also contribute to the absorption of carbon dioxide. They can recycle CO2 because coral polyps live in symbiosis with algae that use the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the process of photosynthesis.[37] Another ecological benefit is that coral reef communities help purify water. Most types of coral species are considered filter feeders meaning that they can take the sediments and dirty particles in the water and turn it into clear water that is healthy for the surrounding environment.[37]

Threats to Coral Reef

Tourism

Tourist stepping on a coral reef which will cause the entire coral colony to most likely die.

There are a variety of tourist activities that have the potential to cause damage to coral reefs. When tourists go snorkeling or diving in order to view the reefs that can cause damage if they kick, touch, step, or take pieces of corals off the reef.[38] Even just a small interaction like touching a coral can make the entire colony die.[39] When this happens, corals become stressed and they will try to fight the disturbance which usually causes coral bleaching.[40] When a tourist accidentally kicks or touches a piece of coral a fragment could break off which would of taken years to form.[41] Another downside is that tourists could strip the coral of its protective layer when touched which could make the corals vulnerable to an algal infection.[41] If feeding corals become frightened from human interactions it will withdraw making them unable to obtain their food source.[39] The interference of tourists when snorkeling or diving may seem like a minimal problem but given the amount of tourists that visit these reefs every day these small instances could create large problems. Another problem is when tourists where sunscreen that is toxic to corals. Chemicals including Oxybenzone and Benzophenone-2 are two common ingredients found in sunscreens that can damage developing coral.[42] These ingredients enter the water from swimmers wearing the sunblock and waste water.[42] When corals accumulate these chemicals in their tissues some effect are an increased chance of coral bleaching, DNA damage, abnormalities in their skeletons.[42]

Pollution Originating from Land

Plastic bag smothering corals

There are some types of pollution from land that can enter coastal waters which have the potential to harm coral reefs some of these forms of pollution are sedimentation, nutrients, and trash.

Sedimentation can come from multiple sources including coastal development, storm water runoff, and agriculture.[43] All of these increases the amount of sediments that go into water which will also end up into the ocean. When sediments enter the ocean it can affect corals by smothering them which decreases the amount of light the corals have access to and that they depend on to survive.[44] Sediments also can affect the corals ability to feed and grow when they are smothered.[43]

Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous can be found in fertilizers that are usually used for agriculture and residential use, sewage discharges, and waste from animals can run into rivers and can be carried and deposited into the oceans.[43] Coral reefs are adjusted to low levels of nutrients so when these extra nutrients are deposited into the ocean water it can cause algae to overgrow.[43] When this algae grows it can block the sunlight that corals need and can take the oxygen that corals need to produce energy through respiration.[43] These extra nutrient can also help bacteria and fungi grow which can cause diseases in corals.[43]

When trash and micro-plastic enter into the ocean it can damage reefs. When items like plastic bags or water bottles are not thrown away properly and enter into the ocean it can attach and pull on the corals causing breakage and a blockage of sunlight that corals need.[43] Trash will also eventually degrade and organism like coral and fish might ingest them which could end up plugging their digestive tracks and also consumer toxic elements from the trash.[43]

Global Climate Change

Coral bleaching event at the Great Barrier Reef in Australia

As greenhouse gases increase in the atmosphere resulting in global climate change it causes detrimental harm to many organisms that live in our oceans. The oceans water has been warming which causes stress on corals potentially leading to coral bleaching and an increased vulnerability to diseases. Corals live in symbiosis with zooxanthellae which is a type of algae.[45] When ocean temperatures increase the corals becomes stressed and will eject the zooxanthella.[45] The zooxanthella is what provides corals with their bold colours so after it is ejected the corals turn white.[45] Although corals can still survive after becoming bleached they are more susceptible to mortality.[46] Global climate change has also led to a rise in sea level consequently leading to an increase of sedimentation. Sedimentation can smother corals and block sunlight that corals need for survival.[47] Sea level rise also causes corals to be in deeper water making their sunlight source further away leading corals to grow more slowly.[48] Another consequence to climate change is that storms are intensified and appear more frequently which can cause massive waves to form leading to structural damages of corals and the abolishment of entire coral colonies. [48][47] There is also additional precipitation from these storms which increases runoff that carries pollutants, nutrients and sediments.[48]These pollutants can cause the water to become murky decreasing the corals sunlight source.[47] Global climate change also contributes to a change in ocean currents. This change in ocean circulation will hinder the dispersion of eggs and larvae from corals. [47][49] Ocean acidification is caused by increasing carbon dioxide emission which affects the pH of the ocean leading it to decrease.[50] When ocean acidity increases it limits corals to build their skeletons because when water becomes more acidic it holds less calcium carbonate.[50] Corals need calcium carbonate in order to build their skeletons and if they are unable to corals will be weak and breakable.[51] Ocean acidification can cause corals to die and lead to the extinction of coral species.[51] Climate change poses the biggest threat to the Great Barrier Reef as well as all corals worldwide. It is estimated that if climate change continues at this same rate almost all corals will become extinct by 2100.[52] In 2016, the Great Barrier Reef went through a massive bleaching event due to global warming causing 50% of the reef to die.[53] It is extremely important to prevent climate change in order to save coral reefs worldwide which contribute to the economy and play an important role in the ecosystem.

Geotourism of Coral Reefs

The Marketing Opportunity

The release of environmental studies and the vast amounts of information about global warming and the importance of preserving and protecting our planet has led to consumers wanting more eco-friendly tourist companies.[54] The current generation knows that in order to save our planet action has to start now. This has created the new market of sustainable tourism for companies within the travel industry. Companies can now contribute to society ecologically by becoming eco-friendly and helping the preservation of the environment and also economically as sustainable tourism can be profitable. Many eco-friendly companies generate positive buzz in the media which leads to more consumers knowing and spreading awareness of these brands.[55] Companies who invest in the evolving and growing market of sustainable tourism will have many new marketing opportunities that can help grow their businesses. A lot of times, consumers want to be more eco-friendly but are unsure where to start or how to do it. This allows businesses to give the opportunity for their consumers to fulfill being eco-friendly by contributed through your company.[55]

There are many ways that tourist companies can market that they are sustainable and eco-friendly. One important way is educating your consumers on social media. Providing infographics and key information before tours or about tours can provide ways to prevent harm to the environment. If a company is associated with other organizations that help conduct research or provide support to environmental efforts it is important to make sure your consumers are aware by including this in your advertising, website, and social media accounts.[55] With the increasing trend of sustainable tourism there are conferences around the world that offer help and information to companies who are looking to make these positive changes.[56]Attending these will help companies create good business strategies and marketing plans that target eco-friendly consumers.

Eco-Friendly Ways to view the Great Barrier Reef

There are areas of the Great Barrier Reef and companies that provide eco-friendly ways to view these beautiful structures without causing any destruction. Some of these options also provides opportunities for tourists to contribute to the research on coral reefs and get a better education on coral reefs.

Heron Island

This island is a coral cay and is surrounded by 24 square km of the stunning Great Barrier Reef.[57] This is a great option for tourists looking for a sustainable way to go snorkeling or scuba diving. On top of being a great place to see loggerhead turtles the island is a famous research facility known for its research of reef ecosystems.[57] Tourists are able to go to this island and get hands-on involvement of the research being conducted and gain knowledge about the coral reefs.[57]

Lizard Island

Lizard Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef and is also considered a National Park in Australia. Besides have a more luxurious hotel on the island, there is also a research facility.[57] The facility organizes and carries out around 100 projects every year and also provides educational snorkeling and scuba diving tours to ensure tourists have a good background knowledge to prevent the damage of the reef.[57]

Lady Elliot Island

Lady Elliot Island is a coral cay and is known for conducting eco-tourism tours as well as initiatives to research and study manta rays. [57] The island has a high diversity of marine species in this area of the reef including an abundance of fish, sea turtles, and even whales during the right season.[57] The tours offered provide education to tourists to raise awareness of coral reef destruction and how to safely scuba dive or snorkel the Great Barrier Reef without causing damage.[57]

Reef HQ Aquarium

Reef HQ is the largest living coral reef aquarium on Earth.[57] It is Australia’s national research station and the workers here like to provide tourists with information about the threats to the coral reefs.[57] They also have an app that you can download on a smartphone called “Eye on the Reef.”[57] This application gives tourists who are viewing, snorkeling, or scuba diving the Great Barrier Reef the opportunity to take pictures of damages of corals and send it to the facility.[57] This helps contribute to research the facility conducts and helps them track and locate incidents taken by tourists which can help them find patterns.[57]

Heron Island in Australia
Lizard Island, Australia
Lady Elliot Island
eye on the reef app

References

Earth from space, hurricane.jpg
 This Earth Science resource was created by Course:EOSC311.



  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 "What are Corals?". International Coral Reef Initiative. March 2020.
  2. ↑ "Coral Reefs". Wikipedia.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "What Do Corals Need to Survive?". Coral Reef Alliance. 2020.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 "Types of Coral Reef Formation". Coral Reef Alliance. 2020.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Reef". National Geographic. September 30, 2011.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "What are the three main types of coral reefs?". National Ocean Service. November 15, 2019.
  7. ↑ "Types of Coral Reef". Coral World Ocean Park.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 "Patch Reefs". Coral Digest.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 9.32 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36 9.37 9.38 9.39 9.40 9.41 9.42 9.43 9.44 9.45 Veron, John (2000). "Evolution". Corals of the World.
  10. ↑ "Archaeocyatha". UCMP Berkeley.
  11. ↑ Pallardy, Richard. "Archaeocyathid". Britanica.
  12. ↑ "Trilobites". British Geological Survey. 2020.
  13. ↑ "Reef Biota (Biotic Class)". Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard.
  14. ↑ Camilla, Souto (August 2019). "Stromatoporoids". University of California Museum of Paleontology.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Tabulate Corals". Digital Atlas of Ancient Life. April 27, 2020.
  16. ↑ "Types of Coral Reefs". Coral Reef Alliance. 2020.
  17. ↑ Editors, BD (April 7, 2019). "Symbiosis". Biology Dictionary.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 "Coral Reef History". Global Reef Project. 2010.
  19. ↑ "End-Ordovician Extinction". Sam Noble Museum.
  20. ↑ Holland, Steven (June 1, 2020). "Ordovician-Silurian Extinction". Britannica.
  21. ↑ Yanez-Montalvo, Alfredo (September 13, 2019). "Microbialites: What on Earth?". Frontiers for Young Minds.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Late Devonian Extinction". Wikipedia. August 30, 2020.
  23. ↑ Sawin Ronald, Robert West (2005). "Paleoecology of the Permian (Wolfcampian) Phylloid Alga Calcipatera from an In Situ Occurrence in Kansas, USA". Research Gate. line feed character in |title= at position 42 (help)
  24. ↑ "Frondose". Wikipedia. June 7, 2020.
  25. ↑ Tang, Carol Marie (January 7, 2018). "Tethys Sea". Britannica.
  26. ↑ "Panthalassa". Wikipedia. June 4, 2020.
  27. ↑ "End-Cretaceous Extinction". Sam Noble Museum.
  28. ↑ Rafferty, John P (May 21, 2020). "K-T Extinction". Britannica.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Wilkin, Jack (October 4, 2018). "Corals can tell us about climate change in the geological past". Ecologist.
  30. ↑ House, Michael R (April 1, 2020). "Devonian Period". Britannica.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 "The Formation of the Reef". Sailing WhitSundays.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Rebgetz, Louisa (June 25, 2017). "Great Barrier Reef 'too big to fail' at $56b, Deloitte Access Economics report says". ABC News.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 "Why are coral reefs so important?". Coral Guardian.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Value of Corals". Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
  35. ↑ Bellwood, David. "Biodiversity of the Great Barrier Reef". Australian Academy of Science.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Radecker/ Porogreutz/ Voolstra/ Widenmann/ Wild, Nils/ Claudia/ Christian/ Jorg/ Christian. "Nitrogen cycling in corals: the key to understanding holobiont functioning?". Science Direct.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Why is the Great Barrier Reef so important?". Sight Seeing Tours Australia.
  38. ↑ "Snorkeling tips without damaging coral reef". The Jakarta Post. December 16, 2017.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 ""Ola na; papa i pulama 'ia" –". Wild Side Hawaii.
  40. ↑ Cossio, Camila (April 18, 2016). "Coral Reefs and the Unintended Impact of Tourism". EARTHJUSTICE.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Caitlin, Richards (April 15, 2016). "PLEASE, DON'T TOUCH: SNORKELERS HARM CORALS MORE THAN THEY THINK, AWARENESS CAN HELP". Biosphere.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 "Skincare Chemicals and Coral Reefs". National Ocean Service. January 23, 2020.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 43.6 43.7 "Threats to Coral Reefs". United States Environmental Protection Agency.
  44. ↑ "Coral reefs have survived tens of thousands of years of natural change, but many of them may not be able to survive the havoc brought by humankind". WWF.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Hancock, Lorin. "Everything You Need to Know about Coral Bleaching And How We Can Stop It". WWF.
  46. ↑ "What is coral bleaching?". National Ocean Service. January 7, 2020.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 "How does climate change affect coral reefs?". National Ocean Service. November 13, 2019.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 "Global threats to coral reefs". Coral Reef Alliance.
  49. ↑ "Ocean Currents". The Australia Government.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "What is Ocean Acidification?". PMEL Carbon Program.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Ritter-Davis, Fiona (July 26, 2012). "Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs". National Geographic.
  52. ↑ Yeung, Jessie (February 20, 2020). "Climate change could kill all of Earth's coral reefs by 2100, scientists warn". CNN.
  53. ↑ Meyer, Robinson (April 18, 2018). "Since 2016, Half of All Coral in the Great Barrier Reef Has Died". The Atlantic.
  54. ↑ Riga, Andy. "Travellers want a tourism industry that is more eco-conscious". Canada.com.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 "How can tour operators contribute to sustainable tourism?". Tourwriter.
  56. ↑ "Guide to Sustainable Travel Events in 2020". Tourwriter.
  57. ↑ 57.00 57.01 57.02 57.03 57.04 57.05 57.06 57.07 57.08 57.09 57.10 57.11 57.12 Wilson-Powell, Georgina (October 29, 2017). "5 eco-friendly ways to visit the Great Barrier Reef". Pebble.
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