Course:EOSC270/2024/Impact of Anthropogenic Noise Pollution on the European Seabass and Other Marine Fish

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Anthropogenic noise impacts

What is the problem?

Background on noise pollution

Humans have a wide range of impacts all around the world, but noise pollution is a human impact that may be less well known. As a species that relies heavily on sound-based communication, we are less sensitive to noise than species that do not make noise at all or use noise in a different environment. Aquatic organisms are heavily affected by the noises created by humans in a variety of marine ecosystems. However, what exactly is noise pollution?

Sources of noise (pollution) in a marine ecosystem[1]
What is noise pollution?

We all know of other types of pollution like chemical or plastic pollution. These are types of pollution caused by the dumping of objects or chemicals in environments where they aren't naturally found. Noise pollution is less noticeable, however. Sound (or noise) travels as waves through a medium, pushing aside molecules in its way, and ultimately making sound waves/ vibrations[2]. Noise pollution is the pollution of a natural environment with non-natural, anthropogenic sounds [3]. Noise pollution has increased drastically since global shipping trade was established, with shipping ships being one of the largest sources of noise pollution we have.

Types of noise pollution

Continuous & Impulse

There are several types of sound sources that can act as underwater noise pollution[4]. The first type is continuous noise pollution sources. These are sources that, as the name suggests, produce continuous noise. Shipping ships that produce low engine-sounds[5], or windmills in marine sea parks that produce continuous sounds while they are being used are examples of this. Piledriving is a source of noise that bridges the two types of sound pollution. It is both a continuous and an impulse noise source. Impulse noise sources create shorter bursts of noise, often more powerful than continuous sources. Impulse sources are for example seismic surveying or the use of sonar. Both of which are marine surveying techniques that use loud burst of noise to map surroundings[6].

Sonar

Within sonar another distinction can be made between ordinary ‘public’ sonar and military sonar. As military sonar is much more powerful, its effects on the environment are also much larger. Military sonar has been measured to have fatal effects on marine wildlife, even killing some whale and fish species due to the pressure it creates[7]. Navy sonar can get as loud as 200 decibels[8], which could even rupture human lungs.

The effects of noise pollution are not the same for every species of marine organisms. We are going to focus on the effects that noise pollution has on fish species.

Impacts of Anthropogenic Noise on fish

The European Seabass Dicentrarchus labrax

European Seabass

The European Seabass Dicentrarchus labrax is a medium sized, primarily marine fish distributed widely across the coastal waters of Europe and the Mediterranean. The seabass is important to humans, being a commercially important food fish sustaining many major commercial fisheries and aquaculture operations, as well as large recreational fisheries across Europe. A slow growing species that takes years to mature, the seabass is a top predators in it's native coastal waters, while juveniles are common predators in vital estuarine and brackish habitats across Europe.[9] Because of it's position as a dominant predator in multiple important ecosystems and its versatile generalist feeding habits, the seabass is an ecologically vital species that plays important roles off the coasts of Europe.

Due to its ease of aquaculture, well documented behaviors/anatomy, distribution near highly developed areas and economic importance, the European seabass is one of the few species of fish whose response to anthropogenic noise is relatively well documented. With seabass stocks crashing in recent decades,[10] it is even more crucial to understand potential human threats and impacts on these fish, as well as any larger ecological ramifications as a result thereof.

Physiological Changes

Although experimental studies have found that exposure to loud noises doesn't directly cause mortality in Seabass (at least in the short to medium term),[11] the presence of loud or sudden manmade noises has been found to affect seabass in many negative ways physiologically and behaviorally. In experiments that involved exposing seabass to sound such as piledriving or offshore prospecting, the fish were found to consistently exhibit significant physiological symptoms of stress such as increased levels of cortisol, hematocrit and lactate in the bloodstream.[12] Additionally, the seabass exposed to piledriving sounds were measured to have significant metabolic changes, such as lowered oxygen uptake indicating metabolic depression in response to the presence of such a stressor. Although most stress responses to stimuli such as the sounds used in the experiments are temporary, the long term impacts of continuous noise producing activity such as piledriving or construction can lead to these temporary responses becoming permanent detriments to the fish's health. Even truly temporary noise activities can cause permanent indirect damage, since stressed fish can take a long time to recover and be at a competitive disadvantage in the meanwhile.[13][14]

The construction of offshore structures such as this one in the Black Sea often creates large amounts of underwater noise for native fish like the Sea Bass
Behavioral Changes

In addition to responses in biochemistry/metabolism, seabass behaviors change in response to manmade noise in many ways, often surprisingly. Upon exposure to a unexpected noise, seabass usually tend to startle. What is surprising, however, is that anthropogenic noise can change their antipredator responses even after the noise has been played, such as when exposed to a predator imitation. The usual defensive mechanism for the European seabass is to hide motionless from such a predator, but fish exposed to impulse type sounds tended to exhibit frequent turning behavior, while those exposed to a continuous noise tend to try and flee as far as possible from the predator.[15] The amount of time it takes for bass to regain normal behavior also varied widely depending on the type of noise,[16] indicating that further research may be needed to determine the exact impacts of different types of sound on seabass behavior. Long term, bass seem to be able to habituate or become desensitized to frequent or constant noise, becoming less responsive to such noises with intermitted noises having longer effects.[16] Concerningly however is that once habituated to a high noise environment, they are also desensitized to novel types of noise,[17] raising questions on how this could change dynamics/interactions between fish and natural noise sources that may be crucial to their behavior.

Wider Impacts
The European Seabass plays an import ecological role as the dominant predator in both estuarine ecosystems as a juvenile, and offshore coastal ecosystems as an adult.

Despite it's ecological and economic importance, relatively little research has been done on the impacts of human development on seabass and the wider ecosystem they swim in, with most focus being on fisheries management of the species. However, there is no doubt that noise pollution affects the behaviors and health of wild seabass in many ways, and more attention needs to be paid to the potential ramifications of such changes in behavior. Many behaviors observed could significantly alter the seabass's predator-prey dynamics[15] or foraging behavior.[12] Because of their high placement on the food web, any changes in foraging behavior could drastically alter the balance of European coastal ecosystems. Negative health impacts and higher predation risk could also significantly alter population dynamics of wild seabass, affecting both ecosystems and the large fisheries that depend economically on them. With such frightening possibilities, it is imperative that more research is done on the potential long term impacts of seabass in response to anthropogenic sound, as well as countless other economically and ecologically important fish species around the world that we have even less information on.


How does this problem impact marine ecosystems?

The anthropogenic noise can affect marine ecosystems from different aspects: (i) permanent threshold shifts and other non-auditory tissue damage resulting from exposure to extremely loud noises; (ii) sound masking that impairs the perception of acoustic information; and (iii) hormone changes that cause stress reactions and sleep deprivation.[18]

physiological damage in the hearing systems

Damage from noise can have a detrimental effect on direction, perception, and/or buoyancy control, which can lead to mass strandings in both vertebrates and invertebrates. McCauley et al did related research and found that noise created by an operating air-gun severely damaged the ears of the pink snapper (Pagrus auratus), resulting in apparent ablated hair cells of the sensory epithelia. Moreover, the damaged cochlear cells were not repaired or replaced until 58 days after exposure to the air-gun.[19] the McCauley et al study further substantiated the potential for destruction of hair cells in fish when exposed to high-level sounds, which indicate that noise can harm marine animals' auditory organs, for example, fish's ears and/or swim bladders, and invertebrates' statocysts. These discoveries have far-reaching ramifications, as fish's hair cells are essential to their hearing and balance functions, assisting in navigation, prey recognition, and predator avoidance. When these cells are injured, marine creatures experience impaired directional sense and perception, which can alter their normal behaviors and ecological functions. Furthermore, McCauley et al.'s study supports the broader hypothesis that excessive noise levels in marine environments can cause irreversible harm to a variety of species, including fish and invertebrates, by impairing statocysts—organs necessary for balance and orientation.

sound masking

For their survival, many marine organisms rely on their ability to understand the auditory cues of their surroundings. Therefore, noise pollution can interfere with marine organisms' ability to communicate through sound through physiological harm to their hearing system and auditory masking, a phenomenon in which the presence of one sound alters the perception of another. According to Southall's research on the northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris), the extent of communication ranges was partly influenced by the ambient noise conditions.[20]Some animals utilize noises, such as echolocation, to collect information about their surroundings, in addition to communication. In dolphins, noise reduces the accuracy of sonar detection of objects, and increased noise levels cause the production of sonar clicks to cease due to reduced effectiveness.[18]The presence of noise will impair the auditory information that is crucial for navigation and locating prey. This will make it challenging for individuals to find essential resources like proper habitat and food.

Stress and other physiological responses

The effects of stress are more difficult to define as extensive studies have not been conducted, making it difficult to quantify this effect in fish; however, increased background noise is known to increase stress in humans. Increased stress can affect the overall health and well-being of humans, so it stands to reason that sound may also stress fish. Considerable concern for aquatic life therefore relates not only to the effects of sound exposure on auditory receptor function, but also to the effects of any sound above ambient levels on overall health and well-being. Gilham & Baker (1985) induced stress reactions in O. mykiss by applying vibrations to the walls of the tank. Although the specific stressors were not able to be measured, this study showed that fish experienced a general stress reaction within 1 to 5 days after the signal started, as evidenced by large increases in cortisol levels in their blood.[21] Some evidence suggests that increased background noise (up to three months) may affect the invertebrate brown shrimp Crangon crangon (L.). Legardère demonstrated that shrimp exposed to noise levels 30 dB above ambient for three months in a soundproof environment showed reduced rates of development and reproduction. Furthermore, Legardère showed that the same species' physiology changed in response to increased noise, and that these changes lasted up to a month after the exposure ended.[22]

Given the impact, what are the solutions?

The Local Solutions:

An illustration of the active acoustic survey done on a ship. The sound pulses travel down into the ocean and bounce back when encountering resistance, including marine animals.

Real-time Monitoring:

Solutions for marine noise pollution have regional distinctions to their strategies, often employing real-time monitoring strategies through programs like NOAA’s Ocean Noise Strategy,[23] which can differ among states. However, most of them use a similar strategy, which is acoustic tracking of marine animals.[24] For instance, The Northwest Fisheries Science Center’s Fisheries Engineering and Acoustic Technologies Team uses acoustics to count fish and track salmon.[23] By leveraging these initiatives, they aim to guarantee adherence to established standards and regulations, enhance operational safety, reduce marine activities’ environmental impact, and acquire reliable documentation of noise emissions for future studies.[23] The initiatives are mainly focused on tackling the scientific objectives that are necessary for the sustainable use of natural resources.[25]


Underwater Speaker as an Alternative:

The difference between the use of explosive sources and non-explosive ones in a seismic survey.

An important solution worth noting involves the development of underwater speakers as an alternative to explosive methods like airgun blasting for seismic surveys, primarily due to concerns regarding their detrimental effects on marine fish.[26] Researchers in Tokyo Bay have utilized underwater speakers as environmentally sustainable seismic sources under regulatory constraints.[27] In contrast to explosive sources that emit impulsive waves with significantly higher sound pressure levels, non-explosive sources generate continuous waves with relatively lower sound pressure levels over a prolonged duration.[27] When both sources are compared,  the former surpasses 160 dB below 400 Hz, posing a threat to fish and marine mammals, while the latter maintains around 130 dB in the 100–1000 Hz range, indicating lesser impact on fish.[27] By employing an energy source with reduced sound pressure levels, seismic surveys can be conducted with less impact on marine fish populations by the decrease in threat from stresses. Despite its apparent low power, the survey method facilitates the acquisition of high-resolution shallow structural images comparable to those obtained using explosive sources because of the use of data extrapolation.[27]

The Global Solutions:

Regulations:

International regulations play a crucial role in mitigating the impact of marine noise pollution on marine ecosystems by setting noise emission standards for maritime activities. For instance, The International Association of Oil & Gas Producers (IOGP) has taken proactive measures to restrict the use of explosive types of energy sources such as air guns because of their potential impacts on marine mammals and fish species.[27] By prohibiting the use of airgun blasting in certain contexts or implementing strict guidelines for its use in seismic surveys, they aim to minimize the environmental impact and protect marine biodiversity, including fish.[27][28] Other regulations could include that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) obliges parties to take all measures that are “necessary to prevent, reduce, and control pollution of the marine environment from any source.”[28]

Research Management:

In addition to regulatory frameworks, effective research management could fill critical knowledge gaps and build an understanding of marine noise impacts, especially on fish. Other than general knowledge, when lawmakers create regulations they rely heavily on standards backed by data, therefore research is essential. The UN posed anthropogenic marine noise as a threat, and they encourage “further studies and consideration of the impacts of ocean noise on marine living resources.”[28] This could be done through Programs such as NOAA’s Ocean Acoustics Program which funds and manages research directly with coordination on intra- and inter-governmental bodies and panels.[23] By facilitating collaboration and resource allocation, such research programs are detrimental to advancing our understanding of marine noise impacts and informing evidence-based policymaking on a global scale.

References

  1. ↑ "Ocean Noise". NOAA fisheries.
  2. ↑ Newman, Jay (2008). Physics of the Life Sciences. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-387-77259-2.
  3. ↑ "What is ocean noise?". NOAA National Ocean Service.
  4. ↑ Deepak, Jhanwar (2016). "Noise Pollution: A Review". Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health. 4: 72–77.
  5. ↑ McKenna, Megan F.; Ross, Donald; Wiggins, Sean M.; Hildebrand, John A. (2012). "Underwater radiated noise from modern commercial ships". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 131: 92–103.
  6. ↑ Cummings, Jim; Brandon, Natalie (2004). SONIC IMPACT: A Precautionary Assessment of Noise Pollution from Ocean Seismic Surveys. line feed character in |title= at position 14 (help)
  7. ↑ "Does Military Sonar Kill Marine Wildlife?". Scientist American. JUNE 10, 2009. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ Martin, S. Bruce; Evans, Craig; Wilson, Colleen C.; Hannay, David E. (2021). Assessing Sonar Sound Levels from Commercial Ships. p. 6.
  9. ↑ Vandeputte, M., Gagnaire, P. ‐., & Allal, F. (2019). The european sea bass: A key marine fish model in the wild and in aquaculture. Animal Genetics, 50(3), 195-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/
  10. ↑ Harvey, F. (2013, September 30). Sea bass stocks fall to their lowest in 20 years. Our World. United Nations University. https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/sea-bass-stocks-fall-to-their-lowest-in-20-years
  11. ↑ Debusschere, E., De Coensel, B., Bajek, A., Botteldooren, D., Hostens, K., Vanaverbeke, J., Vandendriessche, S., Van Ginderdeuren, K., Vincx, M., & Degraer, S. (2014). In situ mortality experiments with juvenile sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in relation to impulsive sound levels caused by pile driving of windmill foundations. PloS one, 9(10), e109280. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109280
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Debusschere, E., Hostens, K., Adriaens, D., Ampe, B., Botteldooren, D., De Boeck, G., De Muynck, A., Sinha, A. K., Vandendriessche, S., Van Hoorebeke, L., Vincx, M., & Degraer, S. (2016). Acoustic stress responses in juvenile sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax induced by offshore pile driving. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 208(Pt B), 747–757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.10.055
  13. ↑ Santulli, A., Modica, A., Messina, C., Ceffa, L., Curatolo, A., Rivas, G., Fabi, G., & D'Amelio, V. (1999). Biochemical Responses of European Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) to the Stress Induced by Offshore Experimental Seismic Prospecting. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38(12), 1105-1114.
  14. ↑ Buscaino, G., Filiciotto, F., Buffa, G., Bellante, A., Di Stefano, V., Assenza, A., Fazio, F., Caola, G., & Mazzola, S. (2010). Impact of an acoustic stimulus on the motility and blood parameters of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.). Marine environmental research, 69(3), 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.09.004
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Spiga, I., Aldred, N., & Caldwell, G. S. (2017). Anthropogenic noise compromises the anti-predator behaviour of the european seabass, dicentrarchus labrax (L.). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 122(1-2), 297-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.06.067
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Neo, Yik Yaw & Seitz, J. & Kastelein, Ronald & Winter, H.V. & Ten Cate, Carel & Slabbekoorn, Hans. (2014). Temporal structure of sound affects behavioural recovery from noise impact in European seabass. Biological Conservation. 178. 65–73. 10.1016/j.biocon.2014.07.012.
  17. ↑ Neo, Y. Y., Hubert, J., Bolle, L. J., Winter, H. V., & Slabbekoorn, H. (2018). European seabass respond more strongly to noise exposure at night and habituate over repeated trials of sound exposure. Environmental Pollution, 239, 367-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.018
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Kunc, H. P., McLaughlin, K. E., & Schmidt, R. (2016). Aquatic noise pollution: implications for individuals, populations, and ecosystems". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1836), 20160839.
  19. ↑ "Peng, C., Zhao, X., & Liu, G. (2015). Noise in the sea and its impacts on marine organisms". International journal of environmental research and public health, 12(10), 12304-12323.
  20. ↑ "Southall, B. L., Schusterman, R. J., & Kastak, D. (2003). Acoustic communication ranges for northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris)". Aquatic Mammals, 29(2), 202-213.
  21. ↑ "Popper, A. N., & Hastings, M. C. (2009). The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes". Journal of fish biology, 75(3), 455-489.
  22. ↑ "Lagardčre, J. P. (1982). Effects of noise on growth and reproduction of Crangon crangon in rearing tanks". Marine Biology, 71, 177-185.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Office of Communications. (2023, May 23). Ocean Noise. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/science-data/ocean-noise
  24. ↑ André, M., van der Schaar, M., Zaugg, S., Houégnigan, L., Sánchez, A. M., & Castell, J. V. (2011). Listening to the deep: Live monitoring of ocean noise and cetacean acoustic signals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 63(1-4), 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.04.038
  25. ↑ Alós, J., Aarestrup, K., Abecasis, D., Afonso, P., Alonso‐Fernandez, A., Aspillaga, E., Barcelo‐Serra, M., Bolland, J., Cabanellas‐Reboredo, M., Lennox, R., McGill, R., Özgül, A., Reubens, J., & Villegas‐Ríos, D. (2022). Toward a decade of ocean science for sustainable development through acoustic animal tracking. Global Change Biology, 28(19), 5630-5653. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16343
  26. ↑ Davidsen, J. G., Dong, H., Linné, M., Andersson, M. H., Piper, A., Prystay, T. S., Hvam, E. B., Thorstad, E. B., Whoriskey, F., Cooke, S. J., Sjursen, A. D., Rønning, L., Netland, T. C., & Hawkins, A. D. (2019). Effects of sound exposure from a seismic airgun on heart rate, acceleration and depth use in free-swimming atlantic cod and saithe. Conservation Physiology, 7(1), coz020-coz020. https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coz020
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 Tsuru, T., Amakasu, K., Park, J., Sakakibara, J., & Takanashi, M. (2019). A new seismic survey technology using underwater speaker detected a low-velocity zone near the seafloor; an implication of methane gas accumulation in tokyo bay. Earth, Planets, and Space, 71(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-019-1011-0
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Scott, K. N. (2004). International regulation of undersea noise. The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 53(2), 287-323. https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/53.2.287
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