Kelping It: How Human Efforts Improve Kelp Growth

Forest-forming kelp species support some of the most diverse and productive ecosystems in Earth's global oceans. However, they are susceptible to anthropogenic impacts, and are under threat by industrialization and global warming. Human efforts that positively impact kelp populations include active restoration, commercial kelp farming, and preservation of existing ecosystems.

About Kelp

Kelp is a photosynthetic brown macroalgae that appears as many diverse species worldwide. Its larger species often form thick “forests” in shallow rocky water, where it fastens itself to the seabed with holdfasts and extends vertically up into the water column (Bolton, 2010).

Role in Ecosystems

Large kelp species are an integral part of the ecosystems they inhabit, both as a source of nutrients and as a source of shelter. The vertical scale of kelp provides an expansive home for fish and the many smaller organisms (bacteria, planktonic lifeforms, smaller algae) that adhere to both its leaves and its holdfast roots (Schiel & Foster, 2015). Common hard-shelled residents of kelp forest ecosystems are crustaceans such as the shield-backed kelp crab Pugettia producta and molluscs (clams, snails) that are in turn preyed on by larger organisms like brittle stars and urchins (Schiel & Foster, 2015). Kelp forests also then by extension support mammals and birds (otters, cormorants, seagulls) that prey on these marine organisms (Schiel & Foster, 2015). The web of life supported by kelp forest ecosystems is extensive and diverse; kelp forests are one of the highest primary producing environments on Earth along with tropical rainforests, with most of this primary production directly attributable to the macroalgae themselves (Harrer et al., 2013).

Human Damage to Wild Kelp

Anthropogenic changes are pervasive across most ecosystems, and wild kelp forests are no exception. The human driven greenhouse effect, fishing practices, and harvest, damage kelp populations, and the systems and species they support. Some of the most dangerous anthropogenic effects on kelp forests include:

Ocean warming:

Human activity, namely the burning of fossil fuels, is contributing to the excessive greenhouse effect raising our average global temperature. This in turn leads to a rise in global ocean temperature, having absorbed about 90% of earth’s warming since 1976 (NOAA, 2026). Kelp requires temperate waters, and cool temperatures to thrive (Smale, 2020). Increasing ocean temperatures can lead kelp, especially those living in waters already near the upper threshold of their thermal niche, to suffer changes to their populations through increased mortality rates and genetic shifts, leading to altered size and shape, or range contraction and even total species loss (Smale, 2020). Beyond the direct physiological changes to kelp populations, rising sea temperatures can also lead to increases in the populations of grazing species like urchins and some fish, who feed on kelp (Smale, 2020). If these populations become too large, they can destroy whole kelp forests, removing essential habitat for many associate species (Smale, 2020).

Over fishing:

Human fishing impacts more than just the population of fish being consumed, it also affects the ecosystems they support. Overfishing indirectly has detrimental effects on kelp forests as it reduces the presence of top predators, leading to a trophic cascade (UCSB Marine Science Institute, 2020). Overfishing of California sheephead fish, and California spiny lobsters, leads to a reduction in these populations (UCSB Marine Science Institute, 2020). Because these predators feed on urchins, their removal from the ecosystem leads to a massive increase in urchin populations, in turn destroying kelps forests (UCSB Marine Science Institute, 2020).

Bottom Trawling:

Bottom trawling is an aggressive fishing practice where heavy nets are dragged across the bottom of the ocean to catch huge quantities of fish (Bird Life International, 2023). Kelp attach their holdfasts to substrates on the ocean floor, growing up in the water column, providing shelter for a huge number of associate species (Bird Life International, 2023). When bottom trawling occurs too close to the shore, the nets disturb the substrates on the ocean floor, leading to the destruction of kelp forests by ripping off holdfasts and breaking stipes (Bird Life International, 2023).

Kelp Restoration

Benefits of Restoration

Kelps are primary producers in the ocean and ecosystem engineers by creating habitat for other marine organisms (Morris et al., 2020). Kelp forests create habitats by providing canopy cover and understory space for organisms, as well as the holdfasts and stipe creating physical structures for fish, invertebrates, other algae and even some marine mammals to seek shelter from biotic or abiotic stressors (Morris et al., 2020). In addition to being habitat creators, kelps are also responsible for carbon sequestration. This is called blue carbon, which is the carbon captured and stored by marine ecosystems (McHenry et al., 2025). Kelps are important carbon fixers and are responsible for storing 0.6-2.8 Tg (10¹²g) of carbon in short-term biomass and 1.1-6.2 Tg of carbon per year along Canada’s coastlines (McHenry et al., 2025). By storing carbon, these productive kelp forests contribute to natural climate solutions to combat climate change.

Traditional kelp management has previously looked like managing how much kelp is harvested to avoid over harvesting and controlling water pollution, but as other factors like ocean warming further impact kelp forests, pointing towards a need for other restoration efforts to be in place (Eger et al., 2020). Ocean warming impacts kelp forests by making it harder for kelps adapted to colder waters to combat warming waters. As a result, possible steps in the future may look like expanding on kelps adapted to warmer waters that may thrive in warmer conditions (Eger et al., 2020). Restoring kelp forests benefits the ecological interactions that depend on kelps (Morris et al., 2020). Currently, some methods for kelp restoration include kelp transplants, seeding, or habitat restoration with the use of artificial reefs (Eger et al., 2020). Restoration by transplantation or reseeding can help areas that have lost kelps due to excessive urchin grazing that are unable to recover naturally due to limited dispersal (Morris et al., 2020). Restoration can also look like handling biotic factors that impact kelp forests, such as reducing grazer species that target kelps (Eger et al., 2020). Other restoration efforts could look like increasing marine protected areas to help protect larger predators that indirectly benefit kelp forests (Eger et al., 2020). Even if kelp restoration has many positive effects and are overall beneficial to marine ecosystems, there is still hesitation in implementing these practices globally. Many restoration efforts in recent years have been difficult to implement as the cost of restoration projects is high to complete, and only within smaller-scale regions that take time to produce results. This has led to an interest in restoration within universities as well as other government and non-government organizations to find techniques to help restore kelp populations to our coastal waters. (Eger et al., 2020).

Restoration Techniques

In kelp restoration, there are 2 umbrella categories for restoration techniques. The first category is passive restoration. This has a focus on how humans can help the surrounding environment to indirectly grow and restore kelp forests. The second category is active restoration. These are the physical treatments and handling of kelp algae to directly help in increasing kelp numbers.

Passive Restoration Techniques

Local herbivore removal

Sea urchins are a big issue for kelp forests, as if they are kept unmanaged can over-graze the kelp and create urchin barrens, which decrease biodiversity and primary production in the area (Miller & Shears, 2023). Researchers Miller and Shears (2020) found that the most effective method of urchin removal was culling by scuba diving. This method entailed having a team of divers dive to the seafloor and cull the urchins in the areas around the kelp forests. Other urchin removal techniques were harvesting and collecting by diving or by free diving, but are almost 2 times slower than culling by diving (Miller & Shears, 2023). These alternative methods take significantly more time on a larger scale, when constantly having to surface becomes a negative factor. Although culling by scuba diving is most costly, when scaling up efforts, it becomes more cost-effective to increase participation in people with fewer gear requirements and encourage them to help with removal in their own time.

Water Quality Regulations

The waters surrounding kelp forests are critical for annual occurrences such as kelp recruitment. If the water quality continues to decline, kelps will have a more challenging time trying to rebuild their forests after storms and periods of intense wave action, causing the decline in kelp forests (Connell, 2007). Improving the water quality in coastal waters aims to address the underlying stressors on kelp communities by implementing regulations on how coastal waters are treated, improving conditions for kelp growth and promoting restoration (McLeod et al., 2026).

Protected areas

Establishing protected areas can help prevent direct harm to kelp forests, such as kelp harvesting or disturbances from human vessels, which could build resilience in the communities.

However, simply increasing the number of marine protected areas doesn’t directly protect the kelp in the face of abiotic stressors such as marine heatwaves, ocean warming and pollution in the ocean (Filbee-Dexter et al., 2024). In this case, by implementing and increasing marine protected areas, this restoration method can help prevent direct harm to kelp forests from humans by limiting boat access and limiting harvesting which helps the forests mitigate the effects caused by global warming (Filbee-Dexter et al., 2024).

Active Restoration Techniques

Seeding

Researchers Ling et al., (2026) implement seeding by taking kelp sporophytes and attaching them to twine spools. These are then grown over a period of 6-8 weeks to allow the sporophytes to mature in an aquarium before deploying them in the ocean. These seeding processes can have around 86,400 M.pyrifera sporophytes on 144m of twine. Once the sporophytes have matured, divers take the entire spools of twine to the sea floor and unwind them either onto a boulder or existing kelp holdfasts to allow for the kelps to develop in the ocean (Ling et al., 2026). By bringing juvenile kelps to the seafloor, there is a higher chance of development as the sporophytes have already settled and are not up to chance of being carried away by currents. This allows for the immediate growth of kelp to quickly provide habitat for other marine organisms.

Transplantation

Active kelp restoration of kelp by transplantation is when a kelp sporophyte is moved from a donor kelp to another location and tied down using either a reef or a holdfast (Graham et al., 2022). Researchers Graham et al. (2022) performed transplantation by taking juvenile kelps from a healthy kelp forest, securing them to a rock tile and then transporting the tile to urchin barens. This method can be very helpful in establishing kelp populations that are unable to naturally restore their own communities due to external factors. By helping restart the kelp forest, kelp can continue to regrow in the new location over the following years.

Green Gravel

This novel approach to kelp restoration was introduced in 2020 in Norway by researchers Fredriksen et al. (2020), where kelp sporophytes are grown in a lab on gravel or small rocks and then released onto the sea floor either by diving down or by releasing them from a boat. This is a cost-effective way to increase the area of restoration, as there is no scuba diving is necessary. When diving is introduced to restoration efforts, the amount of time necessary and the total cost of the process increase greatly. In this study, kelp were released into areas where kelp previously occupied but were no longer able to grow, after spending 69 days in the lab. At a depth of 3m, they found that the kelps were able to reach 54 cm after 342 days (Fredriksen et al., 2020). This shows how having a method where researchers can simply toss the small rocks over the side of a boat can dramatically reduce the time required to implement the kelps, allowing for a greater area to be covered in less time.

Case Study

Researchers McLeod et al. (2026) looked at comparing passive with active restoration techniques. They looked at improving their wastewater treatment on a coastal shore in Australia over the span of 10 years and compared it with kelp transplantation. Over the span of 10 years, they found that the updated changes to the wastewater treatment centre allowed for 1.15 hectares of kelp to recover, which cost $42,250 USD per hectare to restore. The kelp transplantation efforts only yielded 0.0008 hectares of kelp recovery, which cost approximately $292,915 USD per hectare to restore. Due to this, the most economically viable restoration technique in this study was through passive restoration of water quality improvements. These techniques, however, should not be used as a “one or the other” effort. Active restoration is just as important to re-establish kelp populations and provide immediate cover and shelter for other organisms, and passive restoration allows for long-term benefits to the environment and waters surrounding kelp forests to ensure survival in the long term (McLeod et al., 2026).

Kelp Restoration Organizations

There are many local initiatives along the west coast of British Columbia to help restore kelp populations. Here are some of the top organizations:

The Kelp Rescue initiative (KRI): kelprescue.org

Based in Bamfield, BC, they focus on the passive restoration technique of urchin removal and active restoration techniques of seeding, transplantation, and green gravel.

Ocean Wise Seaforestation: ocean.org/climate-change/seaforestation

Based in Vancouver, BC, they focus on the passive restoration technique of urchin removal and active restoration techniques of seeding, transplantation, and green gravel.

West Coast Kelp: westcoastkelp.ca/services/restoration

Based in Bamfield, BC, they focus on the active restoration techniques of seeding, transplantation, and green gravel.

The Kelp Node: kelpnode.org

Based along the west coast of BC and WA, they focus on the research of the passive restoration technique of urchin removal and the active restoration technique of green gravel.

Kelp Farming

Methods of Kelp Farming

There are many forms of kelp farming, with decisions about cultivation style, species to be farmed, and location of the farm determined by the farmers themselves, and their objectives in the industry. Kelps exhibit an alternation of generations between the sexual gametophyte, and the asexual sporophyte (SeaGrant, 2026). The sporophyte is the long kelp blades harvested in the spring, while the gametophytes are microscopic female (egg producing) and male (sperm producing) structures; the sperm and egg will fuse and grow into a new propagule (SeaGrant, 2026). Farmers will grow these propagules in controlled conditions until they are large and strong enough to enter the grow out phase, when they will transfer propagules to their long-term growth site, either on or off shore (SeaGrant, 2026). On shore kelp farming usually takes place in large tanks, with air continually pumping into the tanks to keep kelp moving as it grows. During off shore cultivation kelp are usually grown on longlines that sit about 1.5m-2.5m below the surface, this process is called vertical, or 3D farming (SeaGrant, 2026). Kelp blades will grow down into the water column, with many reaching longer than 10m over the winter (SeaGrant, 2026). Kelp are then harvested in spring, in some cases the plants themselves are sold for food, with species like Undaria pinnatifida being sold as Wakame, or Sargassum fusiform as Haiziki (Aquaculture Stewardship Council, 2026). Other kelps, like Saccharina spp. are harvested both as food, and for the cell wall component Alginate, which is used as a thickener in food and pharmaceutical industries (Aquaculture Stewardship Council, 2026). Other seaweeds such as Eucheuma spp. and Grassilaria spp. are farmed for their cell wall components Carrageenan and Agar (respectively), while Pyropia spp. are farmed for the popular food Nori (Aquaculture Stewardship Council, 2026).

Farm vs Forest: How these Ecosystems Differ

In forest-forming kelp grow vertically from their holdfasts attached at the ocean floor up to the surface, and then horizontally across the surface creating a canopy. This provides shade and shelter for organisms like fish to hide from predators (Bekkby et al., 2023). Forest kelps also act as substrates for many epiphytes, such as polychaete worms, and a home for many marine isopods, amphipods, and gastropods (Bekkby et al., 2023). Variability in forest density is impacted by weather, climate change, and urbanization, but under normal circumstances the forest is present year-round; conversely kelp that is farmed must be harvested yearly, reducing its capacity to support associate species long term (Bekkby et al., 2023). Forests are usually located slightly closer to the shore, and cover much larger areas than farms. Kelp forests tend to have higher biodiversity and more overall individuals (and taxa), than kelp farms (Bekkby et al., 2023). Kelp farms have been found to support high numbers of specific associate species, namely, isopods and amphipods (Bekkby et al., 2023). Because kelp forests have complex benthic structures created by their holdsfasts, they tend to support more marine invertebrates, and benthic organisms; farms hang into the water column upside down, so they tend to only be capable of supporting species that thrive higher in the water column, where a forest can do both (Forbes et al., 2022). Because kelp farms create novel ecosystems, it has been suggested that their presence near kelp forests may lead to the introduction of invasive species that will damage wild populations (Forbes et al., 2022). However, it has also been suggested that the proximity of kelp farms to wild populations is what allows for organisms to transition to living on the farm, producing the novel ecosystem. Typically, forest biodiversity and species abundance is greatest during the summer months, so the fact that farmed kelp tends to be harvested during these months calls into question the ability of a farm to support associate species in any significant way, as harvest puts those species at risk of either being destroyed, or simply losing their home. Kelp farms are proving to be a sustainable and cost effective form of aquaculture, however kelp farms are not a replacement for our natural kelp forests, and cannot fulfill the same essential ecosystem roles (Forbes et al., 2022).

Indigenous Stewardship

Humans have been living and building civilizations in coastal areas for most of the history of mankind (Lindo et al., 2017). Indigenous communities have been working with and utilizing kelp for centuries, and are often both critical sources of knowledge and the activists at the forefront of kelp preservation and restoration (Coast Funds, 2024; Kesling & McHugill, 2025; Luciano, 2025). Local and contextual knowledge of understudied ecosystems is critical to understanding them, especially in sociocultural contexts (Risley et al., 2025). In many coastal ecosystems, stewardship knowledge collected through procedures such as participatory mapping is often critical to the upkeep and health of fishery and environment—influencing decisions on boundaries of marine protected areas, providing data on local species, and promoting better collaboration and action orientation in research efforts (Risley et al., 2025). A 2025 study on perception of the use values of kelp in and outside the Kwakiutl Nation showed that nation members placed overall more value on the “indirect” and relational values of kelp, such as future sustainability and the health of the ocean, in comparison to commercial values (Gutzmann et al., 2025).

Examples of Current Projects

Tsleil-Waututh Nation (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada)

The Tsleil-Waututh Nation of Vancouver, British Columbia has been working since 2023 to restore bull kelp populations in Burrard Inlet in an effort to restore the habitat from the effects of dredging (Luciano, 2025). They are conducting this work in collaboration with BC nonprofit Kelp Rescue Initiative. Initial methods in 2023 involved releasing baby kelp into the water attached to pebbles, an approach similar to green gravel. This showed little success, as young kelp was not established firmly enough in the substrate and was swept away (Luciano, 2025). Larger rocks were then used to grow kelp to a further stage of adolescence before release, a strategy that proved much more effective; recent plantings of kelp have reached maturity and released spores (Luciano, 2025).

The Tsleil-Waututh (a name meaning People of the Inlet) have fought for preservation of the inlet on various fronts, such as cleaner stormwater systems and stricter regulations on industrial runoff (Tsleil-Waututh Nation, 2025). They hope the return of bull kelp in the inlet will provide habitat for young fish and crabs, as well as attenuate shoreline erosion (Luciano, 2025).

Shinnecock Nation (Long Island, New York, USA)

Shinnecock Bay. Photo by Ali Weheda, 2015.

Five women from the Shinnecock Nation of Long Island, New York began farming sugar kelp in Shinnecock Bay in 2020, hoping to combat effects of pollution in the bay. They grow kelp on anchored lines and sell it as a soil fertilizer (one of its historic traditional uses in the area) due to its high mineral and nutrient content (Geib, 2025). They operate as a nonprofit in the state of New York. The Shinnecock Nation only regained stewardship rights over the waters in 2019 (Geib, 2025).

During the first years of the farm’s operation, the baby kelp suffered from the suffocating algal blooms supported by recent warming and acidification of the bay due to human activity. Recent water purification technology and strategies involving planting kelp at a more mature stage have proven essential in reducing losses to this algae threat (Geib, 2025). The local community reports increases in wildlife, as well as less-brittle quahog shells, which were previously degraded by the acidity of the water; this shows the effects of the farmed kelp on ecosystem support and denitrification. Sugar kelp is very effective at sequestering pollutants and sugar kelp farms have been shown to be one of the most effective coastal climate solutions (Kesling & McHugill, 2025). It also creates important habitats for both local and migratory wildlife (Kesling & McHugill, 2025).

Kwiakah Nation (Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada)

The Kwiakah First Nation of Philips Arm, BC have recently opened a floating research station called the Center for Excellence. The facility was originally a commercial salmon farm. It features accommodations for visiting researchers in order to make long-term research more sustainable, wet and dry labs, and student positions (Coast Funds, 2024). Extending on the nation’s history of kelp research, the facility will contain a 1-hectare kelp and seaweed test farm (Coast Funds, 2024; North Island College, 2020). They aim to restore kelp levels in the area and to better understand the opportunities it provides for carbon sequestration. They hope to be able to combine traditional and historical knowledge about kelp populations with modern science to address the modern issues of climate change (Coast Funds, 2024).

How You Can Help

As well as staying educated on the large-scale positive and negative anthropogenic effects on kelp forests, there is individual work that can be done to help the ongoing efforts of growth and restoration. Here are some ways that you can help too!

Monitoring and citizen research

Using apps like iNaturalist, you can track the health and population of kelps and the numbers of other kelp-ecosystem organisms to help monitor the current state of marine ecosystems. This kind of civilian knowledge is critical to covering more ground and better understanding trends in the absence of more formal research.

Financial support

Restoration projects and organizations can be very pricey and it is often difficult to secure the formal funding necessary to continue with restoration efforts. Donating to trusted kelp restoration organizations can help to ensure that these organizations are able to continue their work. Organizations and efforts listed on this page currently accepting donations are:

Ocean Wise (through multiple different approaches)
Kelp Rescue Initiative
Shinnecock Kelp Farmers

In addition, buying sustainable seafood supports more ethical treatment of marine ecosystems. In British Columbia, Ocean Wise has an initiative to recognize sustainable seafood sources and retailers, which can be identified by the Ocean Wise logo (the circular fish).

Day-to-day mindfulness

You can recycle and reuse--reduce plastic pollution to help decrease the direct impacts on marine organisms. In addition, you can use eco-friendly cleaning products to reduce runoff effects and minimize water use for efficiency in the home.

References

Bekkby, T., Torstensen, R.R.G., Grünfeld, L.A.H., Gundersen, H., Fredriksen, S., Rinde, E., Christie, H., Walday, M., Andersen, G.S., Brkljacic, M.S., Neves, L., & Hancke, K. (2023). ‘Hanging gardens’—comparing fauna communities in kelp farms and wild kelp forests. Frontiers in Maine Science, 10, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1066101

Bird Life International. (2023). The impacts of bottom trawling in Marine Protected Areas. BirdLife. https://www.birdlife.org/news/2023/03/23/the-impacts-of-bottom-trawling-in-marine-protected-areas/

Bolton, J. J. (2010). The biogeography of kelps (Laminariales, Phaeophyceae): a global analysis with new insights from recent advances in molecular phylogenetics. Helgoland Marine Research, 64(4), 263–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10152-010-0211-6

Coast Funds. (2024, August 12). Kwiakah’s Centre for Excellence: A “Home Away from Home” for Guardians, Researchers. Coast Funds. https://coastfunds.ca/news/kwiakahs-centre-for-excellence/

Connell, S. D. (2007). Water quality and the loss of coral reefs and kelp forests: alternative states and the influence of fishing. Marine ecology. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 556-568.

Eger AM, Marzinelli E, Gribben P, Johnson CR, Layton C, Steinberg PD, Wood G, Silliman BR and Vergés A (2020) Playing to the Positives: Using Synergies to Enhance Kelp Forest Restoration. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:544.doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.0054

Filbee-Dexter, K., Starko, S., Pessarrodona, A., Wood, G., Norderhaug, K. M., Piñeiro-Corbeira, C., & Wernberg, T. (2024). Marine protected areas can be useful but are not a silver bullet for kelp conservation. Journal of Phycology, 60, 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpy.13446

Forbes, H., Shelamoff, V., Visch, W. et al. (2022). Farms and forests: evaluating the biodiversity benefits of kelp aquaculture. Journal of Applied Phycology, 34, 3059–3067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-022-02822-y

Fredriksen, S., Filbee-Dexter, K., Norderhaug, K.M., Steen, H., Bodvin, T., Coleman, M., Moy, F., Wernberg, T., Green gravel: a novel restoration tool to combat kelp forest decline. Sci Rep 10, 3983 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60553-x

Geib, C. (2025). Turning the Tide: A kelp farm run by Shinnecock women is helping to clean the waters off Long Island. The Nature Conservancy. https://www.nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine-articles/shinnecock-women-kelp-farmers/

Graham, T.D.J., Morris, R.L., Strain, E.M.A. and Swearer, S.E. (2022), Identifying key factors for transplantation success in the restoration of kelp (Ecklonia radiata) beds. Restor Ecol, 30: e13536. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13536

Gutzmann, S. B., Humchitt, C., Kowalchuk, K., Hunt, D., Allchurch, A., Cisneros‐Montemayor, A., & Salomon, A. K. (2025). Indigenous resurgence in the Blue Economy: Relational values to guide kelp mariculture. People and Nature, 8. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70214

Harrer, S. L., Reed, D. C., Holbrook, S. J., & Miller, R. J. (2013). Patterns and controls of the dynamics of net primary production by understory macroalgal assemblages in giant kelp forests. Journal of Phycology, 49(2), 248–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpy.12023

Kesling, J. R., & McHugill, A. (2025). Restorative aquaculture stimulates cultural and ecological benefits: Centering sugar kelp, indigenous stewardship, and a New York estuary. Earth Stewardship, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/eas2.70012

Lindo, J., Achilli, A., Perego, U. A., Archer, D., Valdiosera, C., Petzelt, B., Mitchell, J., Worl, R., James, D. E., Fifield, T. E., Rasmussen, M., Willerslev, E., Cybulski, J. S., Kemp, B. M., DeGiorgio, M., & Malhi, R. S. (2017). Ancient individuals from the North American Northwest Coast reveal 10,000 years of regional genetic continuity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(16), 4093–4098. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/26480412

Ling, S.D., Baron, M., Bennett, S., Brooks, S., Gowlett-Holmes, K., Tebbett, S.B. and Sanderson, J.C. (2026), A scalable “holdfast-graft” method for reseeding threatened giant kelp forests. Restor Ecol, 34: e70214. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.70214

Luciano, A. (2025, August 13). Tsleil-Waututh Nation restores bull kelp in Burrard Inlet. North Shore News. https://www.nsnews.com/local-news/tsleil-waututh-nation-restores-bull-kelp-in-burrard-inlet-11063177

McHenry, J., Okamoto, D. K., Filbee-Dexter, K., Krumhansl, K. A., MacGregor, K. A., Hessing-Lewis, M., Timmer, B., Archambault, P., Attridge, C., Cottier, D., Costa, M., Csordas, M., Johnson, L., Lessard, J., Mora-Soto, A., Metaxas, A., Neufeld, C., Pontier, O., Reshitnyk, L., Starko, S., Yakimishyn, J., & Baum, J. K. (2025). A blueprint for national assessments of the blue carbon capacity of kelp forests applied to Canada’s coastline. npj Ocean Sustainability, 4(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44183-025-00125-6

McLeod, L. D., McAfee, D., & Connell, S. D. (2026). Comparing passive and active kelp restoration techniques along an urbanised coast. Journal of Applied Ecology, 63(3), e70332. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.70332

Miller, K.I. and Shears, N.T. (2023), The efficiency and effectiveness of different sea urchin removal methods for kelp forest restoration. Restor Ecol, 31: e13754. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13754

Morris, R. L., Hale, R., Strain, E. M., Reeves, S. E., Vergés, A., Marzinelli, E. M., Layton, C., Shelamoff, V., Graham, T., Chevalier, M., & Swearer, S. E. (2020). Key principles for managing recovery of kelp forests through restoration. Bioscience, 70(8), 688-698.https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa058

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association U.S. Department of Commerce. (2025). Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content. NOAA. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content

North Island College. (2020, March 1). Kelp Research with Kwiakah First Nation | North Island College. North Island College. https://www.nic.bc.ca/about/research/projects/kelp-research-with-kwiakah-first-nation.html

Risley, S. C., Britsch, M. L., Stoll, J. S., & Leslie, H. M. (2025). Mapping local knowledge supports science and stewardship. AMBIO, 54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-025-02170-4

Schiel, D. R., & Foster, M. S. (2015). The Biology and Ecology of Giant Kelp Forests. University of California Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/41252

Smale, D.A., (2020). Impacts of ocean warming on kelp forest ecosystems. New Phytologist, 225, 1447-1454. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16107

Tsleil-Waututh Nation. (2025). Restoring a Healthy Inlet. Tsleil-Waututh Nation. https://twnation.ca/restoring-a-healthy-inlet/

University of California Santa Barbara Marine Science Institute. (2020). Predators to Spare. UCSB Marine Science Institute. https://msi.ucsb.edu/news/predators-spare