Course:EOSC270/2023/Group 15 - Shark Finning: Impacts on Shark Populations and Marine Biodiversity

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What is the problem?

Shark finning represents not only a severe threat to shark populations but also a broader ecological concern. As of 2023, shark fishing kills about 86 million sharks globally, with 80% of shark fishing being attributed to the fin trade[1]. Much of this fishing is illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU). Sharks are even more prone to IUU fishing as they have short life histories and reproduce more slowly than others[2]. This level of exploitation far exceeds the reproductive capacity of most shark species, leading to severe population declines and, in some cases, the brink of extinction. Sharks, as keystone species, play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems[3]. By culling populations of mesopredators and regulating the distribution of prey species, sharks help to stabilize marine food webs. However, the practice of shark finning disrupts this delicate balance. When sharks are targeted solely for their fins, their populations are decimated, leading to cascading effects throughout the marine environment[4]. Moreover, the method of finning itself is particularly inhumane. Captured sharks have their fins sliced off, and their (often still alive) body is discarded back into the sea[1]. Without their fins, the sharks are unable to swim properly, and often die a slow and agonizing death by suffocation or blood loss. This process not only contributes to the decline of shark populations but also reflects a lack of regard for animal welfare.

The demand for shark fins

Shark's fin soup

In many Asian cultures, shark fin is seen as a prized delicacy and status symbol with great cultural and monetary value[5]. Shark fin soup is a prestigious dish that is served as a standard dish at celebratory events such as weddings, banquets and corporate functions. They are also linked to the Asian concept of ‘face’ -- serving shark’s fin soup is a display of wealth that reinforces the host’s generosity and social standing[6]. The cultural significance of shark fin in these cultures have thus fuelled the demand for shark fin -- Hong Kong and mainland China are the largest shark fin markets and consumption centers in the world[7].

This demand drives fishermen to engage in the practice of shark finning as a profitable venture. In many cases, the economics of shark finning outweigh any ethical or environmental considerations. The high value placed on shark fins incentivizes fishermen to maximize their profits by discarding the less lucrative parts of the shark and retaining only the fins. Despite efforts to regulate the trade and curb the practice of shark finning, enforcement remains challenging due to the lucrative nature of the industry and the complex global supply chain involved.

While shark finning occurs globally, it is most prevalent in regions where shark fin soup holds cultural significance. Asian countries, such as China, Hong Kong, and Singapore, are major consumers of shark fins. While China has seen decreased consumption and demand for shark’s fin, this improvement ins countered by rising demand in places such as Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and Macau[8]. The widespread distribution of shark finning reflects the globalized nature of the shark fin trade, with fishing vessels traversing vast oceanic expenses in search of sharks to meet market demands.

How does this problem impact marine ecosystems?

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Impact on coral reef ecosystems

Sharks play a key role as an apex predator in nearly every marine ecosystem, and their removal from the environment via shark finning has rippling effect that spread throughout the ocean. One of the most impacted ecosystems are coral reefs. Coral reef remain healthy through symbiotic relationships with a wide variety of organisms. One organism that plays a particularly important role in maintaining coral reef health is the parrot fish[9]. These herbivores are responsible for grazing on the algae that grows on the coral, and in their absence, corals can become overwhelmed and begin to die off. Large and medium-sized sharks that inhabit coral reefs are responsible for keeping the populations of smaller mesopredators in check. Without sharks, mesopredators such as snappers and groupers proliferate out of control as there in no one to prey on them and compete with them. When mesopredator populations are allowed to explode, they decimate their food sources which typically include herbivorous fish like parrot fish. The loss of sharks creates whats known as a trophic cascade, in which the removal of one species affects the population size of its prey, which in turn has impacts on the population sizes of its prey's prey, spreading the damage to one species throughout the trophic levels and ecosystem.

Changes in prey characteristics

Fitness and morphology

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The removal of sharks can also make drastic changes to the fitness and morphology of their prey. Like most predators, sharks tend to target the weakest of their prey, taking out sick and unfit individuals, and allowing the healthiest of its prey to reproduce[2]. A study conducted in Northern Australia compared the eye and tail fin sizes of seven fish species that sharks prey on across two reefs. In one reef, fishing was strictly prohibited, and on the other , shark finning has been occurring for centuries. They found that on the reef in which shark finning was common place, the eyes and tail fins of the fish they preyed on had shrunk significantly[10]. As there were no longer sharks to evade, the large eyes and taill fins that were once crucial in evading the sharks became an unnecessary expenditure of energy that no longer gave them a competitive advantage, but instead a disadvantage.

Behavioural changes

The loss of sharks can also result in behavioural changes to their prey, which can have devastating implication on their ecosystems. In Hawaii and other similar environments, tiger sharks play a key role in protecting seagrass beds, which provide food and shelter for a wide variety of organisms. When tiger sharks are present, the sea turtles that feed on the seagrass beds must have a broad grazing area in order to evade the sharks[11]. In their absence, sea turtles no longer feel pressured into moving around as they graze, and will instead stay and feed on a seagrass bed until it has been destroyed.

What is the extent of the problem?

Destruction of coral habitats

Due to the loss of sharks, around 90 percent of the coral reefs surrounding Jamaica are now covered in macroalgae[12]. With a healthy coral reef, this ecosystem can support over 4000 species of fish. However, without sharks to protect the parrot fish from mesopredators, this algae is allowed to choke out the coral, leading to the destruction of habitat and the elimination of many of the niches that this wide variety of fish species once occupied.

Exacerbation of the climate crisis

By protecting ecosystems like seagrass beds, sharks also play a key role in the carbon cycle. While occupying less that 0.2 percent of the world's oceans, sea grass beds are responsible for over 10 percent of the carbon that is buried in the sea each year[13]. Without sharks to protect the seagrass beds form over grazing by herbivores, the climate crisis will be exacerbated. This perpetuates a feedback loop in which stress from high temperatures and ocean acidification due to the burning of fossil fuels kills corals and seagrass, diminishing their ability to sequester carbon.

Given the impact, what are the solutions?

Local solutions: the ban on shark fin trade in Canada

In Canada, the local solutions include the banning of the act of shark finning itself in domestic fisheries (since 1994), as well as the more recent ban on the import and export of shark fins in 2019[14]. Canada, setting an example for other countries, was the first G20 country to do so.

How effective is the ban in Canada?

However, the ban may not be as effective as it seems. Firstly, the ban seems to have merely pushed the shark fin trade underground. The ban may have culled the number of shark’s fin that are traded, but it has not done much in cutting demand for shark’s fin, therefore feeding the underground trade. While the trade of shark fins itself is not banned, the trade of sharks -- with the fin attached -- is still legal. Many restaurants continue to serve shark’s fin soup. According to the Animal Welfare Institute (2024),  there are currently 50 restaurants serving shark fin (or imitation) soup in the British Columbia region[15]. This is further supported by many incidents of companies or vessels being caught with illegal shark fins. In 2022, a Vancouver herbal medicine company was fined $75,000 for illegally importing 550 kilograms worth of shark fins, including the endangered species Oceanic whitetip shark[16]. In another incident, a Canadian patrol found a total of 3,000 illegal shark fins, alongside numerous fishery violations. This highlights how as long as there is demand, illegal shark finning will continue[17].

The ban however, has shown some degree of effectiveness in changing mindsets towards the consumption of shark’s fin. Many younger generation Chinese-Canadians choose not to consume shark’s fin soup, but continued to serve it at celebrations in order to appease their elders[18]. This ban helps to reinforce the notion that consuming shark’s fin is wrong, and therefore convince more Canadians to refrain from consuming such dishes.

Global solutions: regulations on shark finning and the shark fin trade globally

Global solutions to the issue of shark finning are mostly based around regulation, similarly to Canada. In 2022, the United States also banned the import and export of shark fins. Finning is now illegal in 70% of countries and overseas territories[19]. Finning regulations have also ensured that catches can be identified by their species, which aids the regulation of catch and trade limits. Furthermore, in 2022, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) gave over 60 species of sharks protected status to cover almost all species involved in the fin trade, making sure that any trade of shark products requires a permit meeting the legal and sustainability requirements under CITES[20]. This would place about 95% of the global fin trade under CITES, therefore ensuring that a majority of the fin trade would have to face greater scrutiny[21].

Global regulatory landscape. (A and B) Increasing trends in number of shark fishing and finning regulations adopted (A) internationally through tuna regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and (B) nationally through domestic laws and policies. Number of CITES-listed threatened shark species additionally regulated through international trade restrictions are superimposed as red lines. New listings introduced in 2022 are not yet fully implemented.

How effective are these regulations globally?

Ultimately, the regulations have caused a decrease in the act of finning itself -- and consequently a reduction in waste and animal cruelty. However, global shark fishing mortality continues to rise. From 2012 to 2019, while the number of laws related to shark finning have increased tenfold, the number of global fishing-related shark deaths rose  from 76 million to 80 million per year[22]. Fin trade regulations have led to the reduction of shark mortality in international fisheries, but an increase in mortality in international fisheries. This is likely because bans on finning have encouraged fishers to retain the entire shark instead of simply slicing off the fin and discarding the body, therefore expanding the markets for other shark-based products. Shark meat is increasingly being found as a cheap substitute for other fish (often mislabelled and consumed unknowingly), especially as other seafood industries decline as a result of overfishing and climate change[23]. Additionally, other products such as shark liver oil are in high demand for its utility in cosmetics and medical products[24]. This incentivizes shark traders to continue the act of shark fishing by landing the entire shark instead of just the fin.

Expert perceptions on shark fishing and regulation. (A) Geographical location of 22 regional experts interviewed for this study. (B) Interviewee perceptions on current trends in shark finning (left) and shark mortality (right). (C) Interviewee perceptions on effective (in boldface) and insufficient regulatory and market measures affecting trends in shark finning and mortality (see tables S11 to S13 for detailed interview data summaries).

While regulations have seen success in some countries, many less developed countries are struggling with enforcing these bans due to insufficient regulatory capacity. These countries do not have the resources to enforce bans on shark finning and shark fishing, or may have loopholes in their legislation that are exploited by traders. Ecuador is one such nation -- while there is a national ban on shark fishing, sharks that are caught as bycatch are exempted from this law. Shark fins caught in Ecuador are often transported to Peru, where the export of shark fins is allowed[25].

What can we do moving forward?

Regulations and bans

Firstly, more countries should continue to ban both the act of shark finning itself as well as the trade of shark fins. Regulation would encourage a shift in mindset against consuming shark fins, as well as acting as deterrence to shark traders. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that legislation in the form of blanket bans may not be as effective as it seems, instead merely pushing the problem underground. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing of sharks is still prevalent to supply the demand from markets that want them.

Creating sustainable fisheries

Bans on shark finning and the shark trade would inevitably negatively impact coastal communities that depend on shark fishing for their livelihoods or as a food source[26]. An alternative or complementary solution would therefore be to support the creation of sustainable fisheries that can ensure that shark fishing occurs in a controlled and sustainable manner. About 25,000 tonnes of dried shark fins come from unsustainable and illegal fisheries, while only 4,300 tonnes of dried shark fins are produced sustainably every year[27]. The controlled nature of sustainable shark fisheries would allow them to meet the demand for shark-based products while preventing overfishing.

United States shark fisheries that have been identified as sustainable by NOAA FishWatch (“smart seafood choice”), the Marine Stewardship Council (“certified”), or Seafood Watch (“best choice” or “good alternative”).

Currently, the United States is one such country that can serve as a model for sustainable shark fishing, with 9 out of 16 of global shark fisheries identified as biologically sustainable and well managed being located in the United States[28]. Common characteristics of these sustainable shark fisheries include implementing catch limits on sharks, closed ares and closed seasons, as well as the protection of species that have low biological productivity such as deep water species (e.g. Gulper sharks) or species with small litter sizes (e.g. Cownose Ray, Bigeye Thresher)[29].

Additionally, the identification of pragmatic yet ethical fishery management interventions can help to create sustainable fisheries while mitigating the negative socio-economic impacts for coastal communities. Such interventions include the identification of marine protected areas to protect critical shark habitats and populations to reduce the likelihood of catching shark species that are under conservation concerns, as well as restrictions on fishing methods to reduce mortality of threatened and endangered species[30].

Education and advocacy

While shark finning is prohibited in many countries, high prices for fins from the Asian market help encourage poaching of sharks and the proliferation of the international black market[5]. Consumer education and advocacy for the protection of sharks is essential to increase awareness on the issue and therefore lower the demand for shark's fin and change eating habits. Institutions such as the government, educational institutions, as well as the media are key to improving awareness on the issues around shark fin consumption[31].

Since 2011, the consumption of shark fin soup in China has decreased by 80% following public awareness campaigns as well as government crackdowns on banquets[8]. China’s public awareness campaign (backed by former NBA player Yao Ming) involved educating the masses on the cruelties of shark finning, which was unknown to many. Additionally, more should be done to encourage F&B businesses to remove shark's fin from their menus entirely. In Hong Kong, public surveys have shown that many only eat shark's fin passively, often as part of a restaurant's set menu (and do not select it for themselves)[32]. A good example of this is in Singapore, where F&B businesses are taking a stand against shark fin thanks to growing consumer consciousness: in 2018, 89 Singapore-based establishments committed to phasing out shark fin, removing shark fin dishes and replacing it with alternatives to halt consumer demand[33]. These cases highlight how advocacy and education are key to minimizing the demand for shark fin.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Shark Finning and Shark Fin Facts. (2018, October 18). Shark Stewards. https://sharkstewards.org/shark-finning/shark-finning-fin-facts/
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 How does overfishing affect sharks and rays? (n.d.). Save Our Seas Foundation. Retrieved 25 March 2024, from https://saveourseas.com/worldofsharks/threats/overfishing
  3. ↑ Schueman, L. (2023, March 11). Why sharks are essential for healthy oceans. One Earth. https://www.oneearth.org/why-sharks-are-essential-for-healthy-oceans/
  4. ↑ The Devastating Reality of Shark Finning—American Oceans. (2023, June 27). American Oceans. https://www.americanoceans.org/facts/shark-finning/
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Dell’Apa, A., Chad Smith, M., & Kaneshiro-Pineiro, M. Y. (2014). The Influence of Culture on the International Management of Shark Finning. Environmental Management, 54(2), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-014-0291-1
  6. ↑ Fabinyi, M. (2012). Historical, cultural and social perspectives on luxury seafood consumption in China. Environmental Conservation, 39(1), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892911000609
  7. ↑ Cardeñosa, D., Fields, A. T., Babcock, E. A., Shea, S. K. H., Feldheim, K. A., & Chapman, D. D. (2020). Species composition of the largest shark fin retail-market in mainland China. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 12914. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69555-1
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Denyer, S. (2021, December 1). Even as China turns away from shark fin soup, the prestige dish is gaining popularity elsewhere in Asia. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2018/02/14/even-as-china-turns-away-from-shark-fin-soup-the-prestige-dish-is-gaining-popularity-elsewhere-in-asia/
  9. ↑ Hammerschlag, N., Barley, S., Irschick, D., Meeuwig, J., Nelson, E., & Meekan, M. (2018). Predator declines and morphological changes in prey: Evidence from coral reefs depleted of sharks. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 586, 127–139. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12426
  10. ↑ Ruppert, J. L. W., Travers, M. J., Smith, L. L., Fortin, M.-J., & Meekan, M. G. (2013). Caught in the Middle: Combined Impacts of Shark Removal and Coral Loss on the Fish Communities of Coral Reefs. PLOS ONE, 8(9), e74648. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074648
  11. ↑ "Tiger shark activity leads scientist to discover the worlds largest seagrass ecosystem". King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. Nov 10 2022. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ Angoh, Sophie (Feb 2 2021). "Implications and trends of the shark industry". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ↑ "Sharks: Meet the seagrass protectors". US National Science Foundation. July 26 2017. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ Canada becomes the first G20 country to ban shark fin trade. (2019, June 21). BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48714320
  15. ↑ Restaurants Currently Offering Shark Fin (or Imitation) Soup: Canada | Animal Welfare Institute. (n.d.). Animal Welfare Institute. Retrieved 10 April 2024, from https://awionline.org/content/restaurants-currently-offering-shark-fin-or-imitation-soup-canada
  16. ↑ Proctor, J. (2022, January 18). Vancouver herbal medicine company fined $75K for illegally importing shark fins. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/shark-fins-fine-herbal-medicine-1.6319221
  17. ↑ Canadian Fishery Patrol Turns Up 3,000 Illegal Shark Fins. (n.d.). The Maritime Executive. Retrieved 10 April 2024, from https://maritime-executive.com/article/canadian-fishery-patrol-turns-up-3-000-illegal-shark-fins
  18. ↑ Vermes, J. (2019, July 28). Despite Canada’s ban on shark fin imports, the appetite for them lingers: Activist. CBC Radio. https://www.cbc.ca/radio/checkup/despite-canada-s-ban-on-shark-fin-imports-the-appetite-for-them-lingers-activist-1.5227900
  19. ↑ Vernimmen, T. (2024, January 11). Sharks are still being killed at high rates—Despite bans on finning. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/sharks-killed-at-high-rates-despite-bans-on-finning
  20. ↑ Márquez, M. C. (2022, November 17). Groundbreaking CITES Vote Regarding Global Shark Conservation. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/17/groundbreaking-cites-vote-regarding-global-shark-conservation/
  21. ↑ Alberts, E. C. (2022, November 25). New protections for sharks, songbirds, frogs and more at CITES trade summit. Mongabay Environmental News. https://news.mongabay.com/2022/11/new-protections-for-sharks-songbirds-frogs-and-more-at-cites-trade-summit/
  22. ↑ Worm, B., Orofino, S., Burns, E. S., D’Costa, N. G., Manir Feitosa, L., Palomares, M. L. D., Schiller, L., & Bradley, D. (2024). Global shark fishing mortality still rising despite widespread regulatory change. Science, 383(6679), 225–230. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf8984
  23. ↑ Maron, D. F. (2023, July 17). Shark meat is a global phenomenon—But not everyone knows they’re eating it. Animals. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/how-shark-meat-became-a-global-phenomenon
  24. ↑ Finucci, B., Pacoureau, N., Rigby, C. L., Matsushiba, J. H., Faure-Beaulieu, N., Sherman, C. S., VanderWright, W. J., Jabado, R. W., Charvet, P., Mejía-Falla, P. A., Navia, A. F., Derrick, D. H., Kyne, P. M., Pollom, R. A., Walls, R. H. L., Herman, K. B., Kinattumkara, B., Cotton, C. F., Cuevas, J.-M., … Dulvy, N. K. (2024). Fishing for oil and meat drives irreversible defaunation of deepwater sharks and rays. Science, 383(6687), 1135–1141. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade9121
  25. ↑ Al Jazeera English (Director). (2023, December 6). Tracking One of the World’s Bloodiest Trades: The Shark Fin Hunters | Fault Lines Documentary. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEoi6iiKC34
  26. ↑ Seidu, I., Brobbey, L. K., Danquah, E., Oppong, S. K., van Beuningen, D., Seidu, M., & Dulvy, N. K. (2022). Fishing for survival: Importance of shark fisheries for the livelihoods of coastal communities in Western Ghana. Fisheries Research, 246, 106157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2021.106157
  27. ↑ Sadovy de Mitcheson, Y., Andersson, A. A., Hofford, A., Law, C. S. W., Hau, L. C. Y., & Pauly, D. (2018). Out of control means off the menu: The case for ceasing consumption of luxury products from highly vulnerable species when international trade cannot be adequately controlled; shark fin as a case study. Marine Policy, 98, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.08.012
  28. ↑ Shiffman, D. S., & Hueter, R. E. (2017). A United States shark fin ban would undermine sustainable shark fisheries. Marine Policy, 85, 138–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.026
  29. ↑ Simpfendorfer, C. A., & Dulvy, N. K. (2017). Bright spots of sustainable shark fishing. Current Biology, 27(3), R97–R98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.12.017
  30. ↑ Yulianto, I., Booth, H., Ningtias, P., Kartawijaya, T., Santos, J., Sarmintohadi, Kleinertz, S., Campbell, S. J., Palm, H. W., & Hammer, C. (2018). Practical measures for sustainable shark fisheries: Lessons learned from an Indonesian targeted shark fishery. PLOS ONE, 13(11), e0206437. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206437
  31. ↑ de Mitcheson, Y. S., Andersson, A. A., Hofford, A., Law, C. S., Hau, L. C., & Pauly, D. (2018). Out of control means off the menu: The case for ceasing consumption of luxury products from highly vulnerable species when international trade cannot be adequately controlled; shark fin as a case study. Marine Policy, 98, 115-120.
  32. ↑ Ho, K. H. K., & Shea, S. K. H. (2016). Comparison Report: the 2009 and 2014 Surveys on Shark Consumption Habits and Attitudes in Hong Kong. Bloom Association Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 34.
  33. ↑ Amour-Levar, C. (2018, February 21). Singapore’s Restaurants Take A Stand Against Shark Fin Consumption. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/christineamourlevar/2018/02/21/singapores-restaurants-take-a-stand-against-shark-fin-consumption/
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