Course:EOSC270/2023/Fish Trade

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Marine Trafficking

Introduction

Eels are some of the most highly trafficked marine animals, specifically the European Eel (Anguilla anguilla). Glass eels (as pictured above) are European eels in between their leptocephalus and juvenile stage. They are trafficked due to the demand for eel meat and are now listed as an endangered species under C.I.T.E.S. [5]. The glass eel trade is worth billions of euros [1].

Marine trafficking involves a large range of illegal activities surrounding the collection, transport, and sale of protected marine wildlife. The trafficking of marine species is done contrary to local and national laws, specifically under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (C.I.T.E.S.). Some commonly trafficked species include seahorses, shark fins, eels, sea cucumbers, giant clams, corals, tropical fish, marine turtles, and many more. These species can be used in food, cultural medicine, decorative objects, and sold in the pet trade for zoos and aquariums [1].

The demand for “luxury” food has increased alongside the rise of the middle class, putting strain on specific species such as eel for sushi and even sharks for their fins. Dried seahorses are known to be used in medicinal tea, and species such as giant clams are sought after for jewelry and souvenirs. As international supply of species has dwindled due to human activity, the demand for these products far exceeds the supply available, therefore, illegal activities occur in order to meet this demand.

Because of high demand, many marine species trade can be worth millions, to even billions of dollars. This high level of profit associated with marine trafficking can stir interest from organized crime groups that permeate into the fish trade. They can act in fishing vessels, exporters, importers, or even government officials [1].

Environmental Effects

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IUU fishing typically involves destructive fishing methods, such as bottom trawling. Bottom trawling can be unnecessarily damaging to benthic organisms, such as echinoderms. Despite its banning, marine traffickers use it in order to increase catch numbers [3].

There are many negative environmental effects that arise from marine trafficking, including overexploitation, disruption and/or destruction of ecosystems, and many consequences can trickle down to local communities [1]. Overexploitation of marine species involves harvesting a species beyond sustainable levels, resulting in its population being unable to recover quick enough in comparison to usage and harvesting. Marine trafficking will always overexploit a species as traffickers work directly against export quotas on species in order to supply their demand networks [1]. Evidence of this is that European eel stocks have decreased by 90% in three decades, every marine turtle species is endangered, and most shark species are in decline. Overall, overexploitation and ecosystem destruction will lead to a decrease in biodiversity. This can occur by the removal of predator species, causing a population boom in species of a lower trophic level or the direct destruction of ecosystem properties such a clam or coral reefs from harvesting processes.

IUU (Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated) Fishing

Many traffickers will also use methods that disrupt and/or destroy the marine environment, such as the use of banned fishing equipment/gear; this type of action falls under Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. IUU fishing is a global issue that affects every sector and stage of the fish trade, including organized crime groups, public officials, and commercial fisheries. Due to the criminality of IUU fishing, it causes economic losses in developing nations of approximately 2-15 billion dollars annually [6], [4]. Many marine species are already overexploitated partially due to overconsumption but approximately 15% of the total world catch is due to IUU fishing [4]. The three different components of IUU fishing are illegal fishing, unreported fishing, and unregulated fishing. Illegal fishing refers to when fishing vessels directly operate in a manner that violates local laws, including not having proper local fishing licenses, or using techniques that go against said license, like banned gear (explosives, bottom trawling, etc) [4]. Unreported fishing involves intentional false reporting or not reporting at all any relevant information to local authorities or Regional Fisheries Management Organization (RMFO) [4]. Unregulated fishing in terms of marine trafficking mainly refers to fishing in areas with very little known knowledge of the resource in question and/or has no conservation efforts in place [4]. 

C.I.T.E.S.

The Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is a protected and endangered species under C.I.T.E.S. Many countries have suspended all commercial trade of C.I.T.E.S. listed species, included the Hawksbill sea turtle, in order to combat population declines and uphold sustainable practices [2].

C.I.T.E.S. is an international agreement that protects over 40,900 species from overexploitation through international trade and involves 185 Parties. This agreement was made between many different governments across the world in order to combat the endangerment of thousands of species. The convention was adopted officially in 1975, when conservation efforts to protect wildlife was a very new idea. Any Party that has agreed to C.I.T.E.S. is legally bound to it, but it does not replace national laws for the Party. Instead, it provides more of an outline on how a Party can conserve that can then be added into the Party’s legislation [2]. While C.I.T.E.S provides a good starting off point for conservation of marine species, it does not cover some species that are frequently trafficked, including North American eels, leading to large scale trafficking to Asia [1]. Ultimately, it is up to a Party’s government to implement laws towards species conservation, and regulatory and enforcement agencies to uphold these laws. Upholding laws inspired by C.I.T.E.S. can prove to be difficult when a Party has weak enforcement power, leading to an increase in marine trafficking [1].

Many of the issues surrounding controlling marine trafficking involve the difficulty of enforcing regulations and punishments. In order to decrease the prevalence of marine trafficking or eliminate it completely, regulatory regimes in source countries need to become stronger and enforcement capabilities need to increase.

Cultural Fishing

Cultural fishing

Cultural fishing refers to fishing that is rooted in traditional beliefs and identity. It is done by a community and goes beyond sustenance and profit. Some practices deal a lot of harm by valuing cultural values above conserving the ecosystem.

Dynamite Fishing

Dynamite Fishing or blast fishing, is a practice of using explosives to stun and kill fish to make collecting easier. Although illegal, this practice stemmed before World War II, where leftover explosives were used, later replaced by mining explosives. Areas of deepening poverty use dynamite fishing as a way of earning. Despite the legality, there are no proper implementations due to the influence the commercial fishing industry has over government officials. Most blast fishers dismiss environmental concerns as their ancestors have been doing it for decades. Scientists report significant biodiversity loss in affected areas.

Blasts are difficult to control in the 30-100 foot radius. The Philippines is home to 10,500 miles of coral reefs, up to 90% reported by the United Nations are in poor to fair conditions. Over 2000 fish species, invertebrates, sharks, and turtles rely on the Coral Reefs. They are important habitats for fish nests and plankton. These organisms provide food for their predators. Destroying corals can disassemble the food chain.

Blasts kill fish indiscriminately, often killing juveniles and larvae that aren’t fit for commercial gain. Fish are taken in both the pelagic and reef habitats and not all of the fish are collected. The uncertainty of the blast and the loss of uncollected fish can lead to overfishing [1][3][8][9][12].

Dried Seahorses in Traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine is a system of medicine that has a history of over 2000 years. It focuses on restoring balance and energy in the body. Dried seahorses are widely used in curing asthma, skin infections, and can act as a natural Viagra. Despite these claims, there is no scientific research. The claims are believed by the traditional community.

The fish trade trades over 20 million dried seahorses each year between Hong Kong, China, and Taiwan. This has decreased 70% of seahorses in the Philippines in the last 10 years. Seahorses are predators to small bottom-dwelling organisms and they're a tell-tale sign of a healthy coral reef system. Capturing them can also cause ecological damage by trawling on the ocean floor can destroy sediments, seagrasses, and coral that are used as habitats. Suspended sediments can reduce light penetration, affecting photosynthetic organisms and decreasing primary production. This damage results in the decrease of biodiversity [2][6][7].

Impacts of removing dolphins on the ecosystem. Decreasing their predators and increasing their prey which can deplete organisms down the trophic food chain. Drawn by Alessandra Lu.

Taiji Dolphin Drive

The Taiji dolphin drive hunt in Japan is when fishermen would bang metal poles to disorient dolphins and drive them into bays. Adults are killed for meat or sold to dolphinariums for up to $150,000 each, while calves are released with little chance of survival without their pods. Although Japan argues that it’s a part of the culinary culture, the majority of the Japanese population don’t consume dolphin meat. It also doesn’t excuse the dolphins being sold for entertainment. Quotas are increasing, from the 20 rough-toothed dolphin and the 100 melon-headed whales to 27 dolphins and 300 whales, resulting in roughly 2000 individuals from seven species captured yearly.

Dolphins are prey to orcas and large sharks, and predators of fish, squid, shrimp, jellyfish, and octopus. Their absence can lead to a decline in predator populations and a rise in their prey, disrupting the balance of the food web. This increase in prey can impact lower trophic levels, such as plants, algae, small crustaceans and plankton negatively. This decreases biodiversity as a whole [4][5][10][11].

Sea Turtle and Dugong Hunting - The Aboriginal people of Australia

The dugong is a marine mammal. Due to conservative efforts, Australia has one of the most abundant Dugong populations.

In contrast, the Aboriginal people of Australia practice sustainable hunting of dugongs and sea turtles for non-commercial needs. It’s a tradition that has lasted for thousands of years and is only consumed on important occasions.

Even though the dugong is an endangered species, only the community that has a history hunting dugong as a part of their tradition is allowed to hunt them under The Native Title Act of 1993. They monitor the population decrease, and give them time to repopulate. Due to these measures, Australia has one of the most abundant dugong populations.

Sea turtles are a main source of protein and are culturally significant for the Aboriginal people to keep hunting traditions passed down from their ancestors. They understand the animals’ biology, seasonal changes, and breeding which helps them know when and how much to hunt [2].

The issues and sustainability

Overfishing is a major issue when it comes to cultural fishing without proper regulations, as traditions are prioritized over conservation efforts. This can remove keystone species from the food chain and endanger animals and destroy habitats. Overall, decreasing biodiversity.

Sustainable cultural fishing can be in the form of passing acts to allow certain groups to maintain tradition. Learning about ecology can also help sustain marine life. For example, the Aboriginal people of Australia, can identify egg-bearing turtles and preserve their populations. Activism can also spread awareness on exploitation, and can help bring laws, such as banning dolphinariums, to prevent further harm to marine biodiversity.

Marine Ornamental Fish Trade

Overview of the Ornamental Fish Trade

Ornamental fish keeping is one of the most popular hobbies worldwide and is a steadily growing multi billion dollar industry [1]. More than 1 billion fish are internationally traded per year, encompassing more than 7000 marine and freshwater species [2]. This growth in popularity of marine animals in the pet industry creates concerns about the pressure on wild populations.

The majority of traded ornamental fish are freshwater of which 90% are bred in captivity and the remaining 10% are wild caught [2]. On the other hand, saltwater species do not reproduce well in captivity, so they are mainly wild captures primarily from coral reefs [1]. This means most of the concerns about ornamental fish trading's environmental effects are focused on marine ornamental fish whose populations are more at risk. Furthermore, in the past most ornamental fish keepers couldn’t maintain saltwater tanks because it was too expensive, but advancements in technology have made prices more reasonable increasing the popularity of marine ornamental fish and expanding the market [1].

Effect on Marine Environments

The marine ornamental fish trade mainly effects tropical coral reefs as the vast majority of marine ornamental fish are obtained from tropical reefs with the largest suppliers being Indonesia and the Philippines [5]. Moreover, trends in the hobby towards the keeping of corals and other invertebrates in addition to fish have increased the already heavy pressure coral reefs face from human overexploitation and global warming [1]. The main environmental impact is the overharvesting of fish leading to reductions in population sizes and biodiversity.

Elacatinus evelynae, also known as the shark nose goby, a cleaner species that feeds on the dead skin of other fish.

The ornamental fish trade is especially damaging to endemic species with small concentrated populations, such as Gramma brasiliensis, as well as, species that are already threatened by other forms of exploitation, such as Hippocampus erectus [5]. Both these groups are especially vulnerable to the localized fishing pressure exerted by the ornamental fish trade [5]. Another example is Pterapogon kauderni, a popular ornamental fish endemic to Indonesia that orally incubates eggs and whose larvae do not undergo a pelagic stage [1]. As a result the species has very limited dispersal and is very vulnerable to the overfishing pressure of the ornamental fish trade [1]. A different aspect to consider is the removal of key species from the reefs. The Brazilian ornamental fish trade targets Gobiosoma evelynae in large numbers which is a cleaner species that serve a particular role facilitating high diversity ‘cleaning stations’ within the reef cleaning other fish, so their removal would have a negative impact even on other non targeted species [5].

Harmful capture strategies utilized by fishermen can also have an impact on the environment. An example is cyanide fishing which is widespread throughout Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea [3]. The practice involves using a spray bottle of potassium or sodium cyanide solution to poison fish and make their capture easier [3]. The target fish is usually first chased until it enters a crevice or hole in the reef after which cyanide is squirted into the hole [1], [3]. Then the diver rips away the live coral surrounding the crevice in order to remove the fish [3]. This not only causes a higher mortality rate in fish captures and damage to the physical structure of the coral, but also lead to coral bleaching as exposure to cyanide inhibits zooxanthellae’s ability to photosynthesize [3], [4]. This can lead to severe damage to the environment with the risk of algae out competing the bleached corals and taking over the reef [6].

Underregulated

Current regulations placed upon the ornamental fish trade are often insufficient or under enforced. Usually fish are captured by small scale fishermen before being transferred to export companies through middlemen or intermediaries [1]. This disconnect in the supply chain on top of inconsistent records makes it especially hard to impose effective sustainable regulations [1], [5]. As a result, local collectors will often ignore regulations set in place because their communities are entirely economically dependent on the pet trade and often among the poorest communities in the country [1]. This can have devastating impacts on marine environments as fishermen will ignore regulations prohibiting harmful fishing practices, such as cyanide fishing which is widespread in Indonesia despite being prohibited by law [3]. Despite regulations mean to reduce post capture mortality up to 98% of wild caught marine ornamental fish die within a year of capture mostly due to the use of harmful capture techniques [1], [5]. Furthermore, lack of regulation has also led to many shortcomings in the documentation and tracking of the trade. Post-capture mortality of fish before export is not recorded leading to an underrepresentation of the number of fish being removed from the environment [1]. In addition, many wholesalers will often under declare the number of fish they are exporting in order to avoid taxes and max quotas [1].

Improving Sustainability

Pterapogon kauderni, also known as the Banggai cardinalfish, a marine fish species endemic to the Banggai Islands in Indonesia.

The sustainability of the ornamental fish trade could be improved by implementing stricter enforcement of restrictions on the capture of threatened species and harmful capture methods, and by expanding the marine fish breeding industry to reduce the pressure placed on wild populations. Harmful cyanide fishing techniques could be replaced by more sustainable technologies such as fine mesh hand nets and mist nets, however, these methods can still cause damage when nets snag on coral [6]. These more sustainable fishing practices are also criticized because they still apply fishing pressures on endemic and threatened species, so restrictions protecting these vulnerable species are still necessary to protect coral habitats [6]. While many marine fish species do not breed well in captivity there has been some success in the breeding of particular species. For example, Pterapogon kauderni, a endemic species vulnerable to the pet trade, is an ideal choice for breeding as it is a small peaceful species whose breeding is mainly limited by the number of eggs in the fathers mouth due to oral incubation [1]. However, captive bred Pterapogon kauderni are still significantly more expensive than wild caught, so further development is needed for it to decrease the strain on wild populations [1].

Invasive Species

What is an invasive species?

Invasive species are species which become established outside of their native territory [5]. This differs from introduced species, where the species is brought to an area outside of their natural territory, however there are not enough of them to become established and build a population.

Introduced species have higher odds of becoming invasive if they are introduced repeatedly, and in large quantities, these conditions are referred to as propagule pressure and is one of the main factors of whether a species is invasive to an environment [8]. This is why areas of high ship traffic are often prone to hosting more invasive species due to the repeated introduction of ornamental species [6].

Impacts on ecosystems:

Invasive species can be harmless, however, more often than not, they cause damage to the ecosystem. Common disruptions include predation and competition on other species in the ecosystem, as well as introducing new diseases to the environment. Another consequence of invasive species is impacting the habitats in the ecosystem, causing harsher conditions for native species [3]. These changes ultimately alter the biodiversity of the marine ecosystem and threaten the existence of the native species [5].

Capps and Flecker conducted a study to test the stoichiometric impacts that invasive species can have on an ecosystem. They found that catfish, an invasive species found in many parts of South America, was found to alter nutrient dynamics and alter the functional roles of native fish in the ecosystem and that these outcomes can be applied to other invasive species as well [1]. The use of ecological stoichiometry can help scientists determine the potential of high-risk species becoming invasive as well as how the change of nutrients in a system would be able to be prevented [8].

Although in theory it would be ecologically beneficial to get rid of invasive species, it is quite difficult to eradicate them completely, and certain methods of doing so can negatively impact native species as well [8].

Ornamental Fish Trade:

In the case of exotic pets, which are defined as species which have only recently begun being domesticated, they can become invasive when owners release them from being overwhelmed by care, or if they escape during the process of being shipped [6]. Released marine species intended as pets is one of the top ways in which invasive species occur [7]. Another big issue with the trade of pets is that they are usually shipped as adults, meaning that if they escape at any point, or are intentionally released, they can reproduce immediately since they have already reached maturity. This differs from other ways that marine species can be introduced like via cargo ships [7].

From the approximated 1 billion fish that were traded in 2000 alone, most of them were made up of a few popular species such as the lionfish or goldfish. This is because of the market demands for certain exotic species, when one gets popular, more people want it, so it gets sent to more places globally in large quantities, increasing its chances of being invasive [6]. Ornamental fish intended as pets make up roughly 1/3 of the marine invasive species [7].

In Canada, there have been many incidences of goldfish being released and taking over ponds as invasive species, which have damaged the survival of native species. The goldfish can survive in areas all over Canada because they do not need strict conditions to thrive, and are quite tolerant of a wide variety of living conditions [3].

Management:

It is increasingly hard to manage the distribution of marine invasive species due to the lack of tracking by government agencies, and the fact that many ornamental fish species are sold on the black market. Additionally, because of the large variation between policies and regulations across countries, it is difficult to manage the spread of invasive species since one system may work for one country, while it is illegal in another. Policies for the fish trade also present an issue because invasive species can differ between provinces or states so there can be a variety of policies for fish trade within one country [7]. It is not only very difficult to manage the removal of introduced species, especially when they become established and are invasive, but it is also very expensive [1]. Ultimately, due to the costly nature of solutions for invasive species, a lot of governments do not see it as a focus for spending money on. However, in Canada, there have been policies introduced to ban the introduction of certain invasive species that affect different provinces. Although, some species could still be imported illegally [3]. Preventative measures are key in order to remove or block non-native species to establish themselves as invasive.

There are some conservation efforts in order to mitigate the environmental impacts of these ornamental invasive species. Despite some helpful policies and laws set out by governments, there is often little enforcement for these rules [8]. Similarly, until recently, there was no global tracking of marine invasive species, however in 2021 the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS), introduced the World Register of Invasive Species (WRiMS) which provides a comprehensive database of known marine invasive species [4]. Through this database, you can see which species are introduced to a specific region, compared to those which are native [2]. This is a start, but there are still many uncertainties about new invasive species developing, especially in areas of the ocean that are not frequently monitored. Education should be increased for both companies selling ornamental fish, as well as those buying the fish so they know the environmental consequences if the fish are set free [7]. Though overall, there are still many strides needed to help control the spread of invasive species both on a global and local scale.


References

Marine Trafficking

  1. Basel Institute on Governance. (2021). Wildlife crime- understanding risks, avenues for action Part 4: Corruption in marine wildlife trafficking. Green Corruption Team. https://baselgovernance.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/Part%204%20Trafficking%20in%20marine%20species%2023%20June%202021.pdf
  2. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (n.d.). About CITES [Organization]. https://cites.org/eng/disc/species.php
  3. de Groot, S. J. (1984). The impact of bottom trawling on benthic fauna of the North Sea. Ocean Management, 9(3–4), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/0302-184X(84)90002-7
  4. Liddick, D. (2014). The dimensions of a transnational crime problem: The case of iuu fishing. Trends in Organized Crime, 17(4), 290–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-014-9228-6
  5. Pons-Hernandez, M. (2024). “Missing the Trees for the Forest?” An Analysis of the Harms to European Eels Caused by Their Trafficking and Trade. Critical Criminology, 32(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-024-09765-5
  6. Temple, A. J., Skerritt, D. J., Howarth, P. E. C., Pearce, J., & Mangi, S. C. (2022). Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing impacts: A systematic review of evidence and proposed future agenda. Marine Policy, 139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105033

Cultural Fishing

  1. Almendral, A. (2018, June 15). In the Philippines, Dynamite Fishing Decimates Entire Ocean Food Chains. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/15/world/asia/philippines-dynamite-fishing-coral.html
  2. Best. (2023). Eating Sea Turtle!! Why The Australian Tradition Continues!! In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aq9ctSlfj-I
  3. ‌Communications And Publishing. (2016, March 14). What a Drag: The Global Impact of Bottom Trawling | U.S. Geological Survey. Www.usgs.gov. https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/what-drag-global-impact-bottom-trawling
  4. Coral reefs suffering in Philippines despite outlawing damaging fishing practices | Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries. (2018). Oceans.ubc.ca. https://oceans.ubc.ca/2018/03/16/coral-reefs-suffering-in-philippines-despite-outlawing-damaging-fishing-practices/
  5. Dolphin drive hunts in Taiji, Japan. (n.d.). Whale & Dolphin Conservation USA. https://us.whales.org/our-goals/stop-whaling/stop-dolphin-hunts/dolphin-drive-hunts-in-taiji-japan/
  6. Fernandez, C. (2024, March 2). Taiji’s Dolphin Drive Season Ends in Dramatic Decline. Dolphin Project. https://www.dolphinproject.com/blog/taijis-dolphin-drive-season-ends-in-dramatic-decline/
  7. Hall, L. (n.d.). Dried Seahorses – Traditional Chinese Medicine – Just One Ocean. https://justoneocean.org/dried-seahorses-chinese-traditional-medicine
  8. ‌Mount Sinai. (2024). Traditional Chinese medicine Information | Mount Sinai - New York. Mount Sinai Health System. https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/treatment/traditional-chinese-medicine
  9. OVER SEAS May 99: A Closer Look at Blast Fishing in the Philippines. (2024). Oneocean.org. https://www.oneocean.org/overseas/may99/a_closer_look_at_blast_fishing_in_the_philippines.html
  10. Philippine Coral Reef Educator Guide Grade 6 -Grade 12. (n.d.). https://www.calacademy.org/sites/default/files/assets/docs/pdf/educatorexhibitguide-philippinecoralreef6-12.pdf
  11. ‌Rough-toothed dolphin - Whale and Dolphin Conservation. (2019). Whales.org. https://uk.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/rough-toothed-dolphin/
  12. Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, November 18). Taiji dolphin drive hunt. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiji_dolphin_drive_hunt
  13. Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, September 14). Blast fishing. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishingOrnamental Fishing

Marine Ornamental Fish Trade

  1. Akmal, S. G., Zámečníková-Wanma, B. P. D., Prabowo, R. E., Khatami, A. M., Novák, J., Petrtýl, M., Kalous, L., & Patoka, J. (2020). Marine ornamental trade in Indonesia. Aquatic Living Resources, 33, 25. https://doi.org/10.1051/alr/2020026
  2. Evers, H., Pinnegar, J. K., & Taylor, M. I. (2019). Where are they all from? – sources and sustainability in the ornamental freshwater fish trade. Journal of Fish Biology, 94(6). https://doi.org/10.1111/jfb.13930
  3. Halim, A. (2002). Adoption of cyanide fishing practice in Indonesia. Ocean & Coastal Management, 45(4-5), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(02)00061-3
  4. Jones, R., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). Effects of cyanide on coral photosynthesis:implications for identifying the cause of coral bleaching and for assessing the environmental effects of cyanide fishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 177, 83–91. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps177083
  5. Monteiro-Neto, C., De Andrade Cunha, F. E., Carvalho Nottingham, M., Araújo, M. E., Lucena Rosa, I., & Leite Barros, G. M. (2003). Analysis of the marine ornamental fish trade at Ceará State, northeast Brazil. Biodiversity and Conservation, 12(6), 1287–1295. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023096023733.
  6. Townsend, D. (2011). Sustainability, equity and welfare: A review of the tropical marine ornamental fish trade. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin, 20, 2-12.

Invasive Species

  1. Capps, K. A., & Flecker, A. S. (2013). Invasive aquarium fish transform ecosystem nutrient dynamics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1769), 20131520. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1520
  2. Costello, M. J., Dekeyzer, S., Galil, B., Hutchings, P., Katsanevakis, S., Pagad, S., Robinson, T., Turon, X., Vandepitte, L., Vanhoorne, B., Verfaille, K., Willan, R., & Rius, M. (2021). Introducing the World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS). Management of Biological Invasions, 12(4), 792–811. https://doi.org/10.3391/mbi.2021.12.4.02
  3. Don’t Let It Loose! (n.d.). Invasive Species Centre. Retrieved April 9, 2025, from https://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/take-action/dont-let-it-loose/
  4. Formally introducing: The World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS). (n.d.). Retrieved April 8, 2025, from https://www.marinespecies.org/news.php?p=show&id=8942
  5. Invasive and Exotic Marine Species | NOAA Fisheries. (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2025, from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/invasive-and-exotic-marine-species
  6. Lockwood, J. L., Welbourne, D. J., Romagosa, C. M., Cassey, P., Mandrak, N. E., Strecker, A., Leung, B., Stringham, O. C., Udell, B., Episcopio-Sturgeon, D. J., Tlusty, M. F., Sinclair, J., Springborn, M. R., Pienaar, E. F., Rhyne, A. L., & Keller, R. (2019). When pets become pests: The role of the exotic pet trade in producing invasive vertebrate animals. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 17(6), 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2059
  7. Padilla, D. K., & Williams, S. L. (2004). Beyond Ballast Water: Aquarium and Ornamental Trades as Sources of Invasive Species in Aquatic Ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2(3), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.2307/3868238
  8. Patoka, J., Magalhães, A. L. B., Kouba, A., Faulkes, Z., Jerikho, R., & Vitule, J. R. S. (2018). Invasive aquatic pets: Failed policies increase risks of harmful invasions. Biodiversity & Conservation, 27(11), 3037–3046. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-1581-3
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