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Course:EOSC270/2023/Coastal Reclamation

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Introduction

Palm Islands in Dubai, UAE
Photograph of artificial Palm Islands on the coast of Dubai, United Arab Emirates, taken from the International Space Station, taken from NASA.

Increasing need for agricultural, industrial, residential, and commercial land has led to a global increase in land reclamation[1]. Land reclamation is the process of filling in parts of marine environments such as oceans and lakes to create new usable land[2]. Coastal reclamation, a specific form of land reclamation, involves expanding land into the sea beyond natural shorelines for human use. These projects are often undertaken with the purpose of furthering economic development or with the aim of societal improvements. While reclamation offers economic and infrastructural benefits, its methods and environmental impacts vary significantly. The specific procedure for reclamation changes with the purpose of the new land. Filling in desired areas with large rocks or cement and then adding dredged clays and soil at the top reflects a simpler method of land reclamation[2].

This figure taken from Sengupta et al. (2023)[1] is a map of total reclaimed land (hectares) from 2000-2020.

Dredging is a key process in coastal reclamation, involving the excavation of sediment, clay, and soil from the seabed. This process employs large, specialised vessels with blades to cut through hard sediment (cutter suction dredgers) and pumps to transport loose material (trailer suction hopper dredgers)[3]. Because dredging directly alters the seabed, it plays a significant role in shaping both the physical landscape and the ecological balance of reclaimed areas. Dredging for reclamation projects (capital dredging) involves the relocation of large amounts of substrates in thick layers, causing large-scale seabed disruption. However, unlike dredging for routine maintenance (i.e. for ship access), capital dredging is a single, non-repetitive operation, thus causing major but short-term effects on the ecosystem[4]. Years after reclamation, it is expected that the ecosystem will adjust and regain a new equilibrium. Following dredging is the relocation of dredged materials to form stable and usable artificial land. Major layers include a core layer consisting of gravel to stabilize soft sediment, a fill layer consisting of dredged material, and a capping layer consisting of sand and soil, in order to construct structurally stable land[5].

One of the first major examples of coastal reclamation was the expansion of the Port of Rotterdam in the 1970s, since then reclamation projects have become much more frequent. Currently, coastal reclamation projects have occurred in 78% of coastal cities with populations greater than 1 million individuals and reclamation is most common in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East[1]. As urban populations continue to expand, the demand for new land through reclamation is expected to grow.

Impacts of Coastal Reclamation

Immediate Dredging and Artificial Land Formation Effects

Schematic overview of noise sources from cutter suction dredgers and trailing suction hopper dredgers. Taken from the Central Dredging Association (CEDA)[6].
Simuation of sediment deposition 15 days after dredging and disposal (without sediment flocculation) at Eastland Port, New Zealand. Taken from Adamantidis, et al. (2023)[7].

Initial excavation disrupts benthic ecosystems, causing direct physical disturbance or entrainment, the unintentional displacement or removal of organisms, with sedentary and sessile organisms being most vulnerable. Egg and larval stages are also sensitive as they are unable to avoid the suction field of dredger pumps[8]. Noise disturbances caused by dredging vessels also cause masking, which is the alteration of acoustic signals, as well as behavioural changes (foraging efficiency, feeding and resting periods) in cetaceans. This will have propagating effects on the mating and reproduction of marine mammals[9]. Disturbance of the seabed also causes an increase in total suspended solids by up to two orders of magnitude[10], increasing turbidity and potential resuspension of harmful materials, altering sediment chemistry and degrading water quality. These suspended pollutants may then be ingested by marine organisms, posing risks of bioaccumulation through the food chain[9]. With increased disturbance and turbidity, avoidance is the main behavioural response in salmonids[11] and marine vertebrates[12], causing temporary displacement of certain species from the dredging site. Elevated turbidity reduces the feeding efficiency of visual predators and filter feeders while benefiting grazers and planktivores[13], change in diet has also been observed in some species[14]. Turbidity also intensifies light attenuation, inhibiting phytoplankton growth. In tropical regions, excess sedimentation puts corals under stress, reducing the primary productivity of zooxanthellae symbionts[10]. Suspended fine sediment also causes tissue necrosis in corals, gill irritation in fish, and clogging of feeding appendages in shellfish[15][16]. Increased sedimentation reduces recruitment and survival of organisms during sensitive life stages, for example, coral larvae[10] and fish larvae[11]. Visual cues for larval settlement will also be impaired[13].

Schematic outlining the immediate major impacts of coastal reclamation on marine organisms.

Deposition of large sediment volumes smothers benthic organisms and eggs, either causing direct mortality or severely hypoxic conditions that reduce survival rates. Laboratory microcosm experiments show bivalves and gastropods are disproportionately affected by burial[1]. Fish egg hatching rates decline significantly under sediment layers >0.8mm, with complete mortality observed at deposition exceeding 2mm[17]. Hypoxic conditions allow microbial anaerobic organic waste degradation, resulting in the accumulation of degradation products that may be toxic (hydrogen sulfide)[18]. The lack of oxygen and compound accumulation inhibit fish embryonic development[19]. Other effects are similar to dredging-associated impacts, such as increased turbidity and total suspended solids.

To improve stability, reclaimed land is compacted using various deep compaction methods involving pounding and vibrofloatation[5]. Such practices cause physical disturbances to burrowing species, and creates hypoxic zones in sediment.

Permanent Coastal Morphological & Hydrodynamic Changes

This figure from Tian, et al. (2021)[20] shows the increase in proportion of low habitat quality from 2000 to 2020 (a higher land area coloured yellow based on the figure). It also shows a decrease in soil retention, as the parameter for “high” decreases from 2000 to 2020. To make these visuals, InVEST models were used which can quantify evaluation of land use and ecosystem services with various simulations. The data used is taken from other papers evaluating land use changes in China, for example one that looked into the evolution of habitat quality as a proxy for biodiversity in mountainous regions[21].

Coastal reclamation can cause changes in coastal morphology, such as shoreline shrinking, changing coastal currents, erosion, moving of the saltwater interface and seafloor scouring. These cause impacts on habitat quality, ecosystem habitat composition, new selection pressures, damaging marine animal organs and loss of feeding areas.

The change in sea level due to coastal reclamation can be due to reallocation of area to urban land which resulted in a shrinking of the shoreline and the conversion of seawater to inland water[20]. In turn, there was a decrease in soil retention, habitat quality and nitrogen export based on evaluations by exploring ecosystem services in Hangzhou Bay, China[20].

However, the change in sea level can also be due to coastal currents being impacted, resulting in flooding in nearby areas[22]. This can cause saltwater intrusions[23] which, alongside more long term flooding and sea level rise, can convert diverse wetland ecosystems into grass marshes and open water[24]. The increase in soil salinity corresponds to decreased ecosystem diversity and habitat for birds, fish, and their predator[24]. The flooding can also cause increased wave action which can dislodge organisms and effectively remove them from the population[25], disrupting population growth and causing trophic imbalances.

This figure from Guo & Jiao (2007)[26] shows the many complexities of the analytical equation modelling the researchers conducted. This is a sketch of an unconfined aquifer system and the saltwater interface in a coastal extensive landmass, such as in Hong Kong, before (a) and after (b) land reclamation. The key variables to focus on are L1 which denotes the length of the saltwater tongue and L2 which denotes the moving of the coastline seaward.

Additionally, erosion often occurs as a result of coastal reclamation, which can bring the coast of islands below sea level–an effect seen along the Gulf of Mannar[27]. Erosion can often result in more sediment suspended in the water column, and thus have similar impacts as the section in dredging that talks about an increase in suspended solids. For example, a decrease in light penetration (which introduces a selection pressure against photosynthetic organisms) and damage to the organs of animals (such as their gills and eyes)[28].

In addition, by using analytical equations, researchers modeling a typical reclamation site in Hong Kong were able to establish a general principle that after coastal reclamation, the salt water interface is moved closer to the sea and the water table rises[26]. To reach this conclusion, researchers used the Ghyben-Herzberg principle and Dupuit assumption (mathematical ways to understand the location of the salt water interface based on the densities of fresh groundwater and seawater)[26]. This could change the spawning behaviour and life cycles of diadromous fish, which migrate between salt and freshwater[29].

Finally, at a land reclamation site at the Port of Rotterdam, work was done to model seafloor scouring[30], which is defined as “the removal by hydrodynamic forces of granular bed material in the vicinity of coastal structures”[31]. Researchers found that there was large-scale seafloor scour on the surrounding sea floor which resulted in erosion causing loss of habitat and potential feeding area for birds[30].

Long-term Effects Post-reclamation

Beyond the immediate and short-term disruptions caused by coastal reclamation, the long-term environmental consequences become increasingly evident. One significant impact is the sustained deterioration of water quality due to continued land-based pollution inputs. For example, at a land reclamation project in Qinzhou Bay, it was found that land reclamation can intensify the deterioration of water quality due to more land pollution input[32]. Specifically, researchers noted that dissolved inorganic nitrogen increased by 40% and dissolved inorganic phosphate increased by 17%[32]. This excess nitrogen can lead to excessive growth of organisms, which causes blocking of light to deep waters[33]. Furthermore, when the organisms decompose dissolved oxygen is used up and results in suboxic/anoxic zones which can lead to a decrease in animal and plant diversity[33] as sessile organisms cannot migrate away from these areas.

Habitat Loss (Case Study: the Arabian Gulf)

One of the main impacts of land reclamation is habitat loss as the integrity of coastal habitats is likely negatively effected due to land reclamation practices[34]. The effect of land reclamation on habitats is highly dependent on the reclamation technique[35], additionally the effects of reclamation on habitat loss can be direct or indirect both of which were seen in the Arabian Gulf.

The Arabian Gulf features diverse ecosystems including coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and mangroves[36] but reclamation beginning in the late 20th century[35] has led to uninterrupted degradation of many of these ecosystems[34]. Reclamation in the Arabian Gulf typically involves infilling coastline by dumping substrates extracted from marine borrow areas, or rocks from quarries onto the marked area[36]. This practice often results in ecosystems being physically smothered, or even being removed which has especially been impacting seagrass meadows[36]. Seagrass provides critical habitats for nurseries, threatened species, and stabilization of nearshore seabed[37]. However, by directly removing large areas of shallow, benthic habitat for seagrasses, reclamation in the Arabian gulf poses one of the largest threats to seagrass habitats[37]. It was estimated that in Bahrain 1020 hectares of seagrass habitat were lost between 1985 and 1992, and in Saudi Arabia 6466 hectares of coastal habitat have been reclaimed from 1973-1990, which included vast areas previously occupied by seagrass[37]. This clearly demonstrates how reclamation practices can directly cause habitat loss.

Coral reefs provide many ecosystem services and in the Arabian Gulf they have traditionally been important as fisheries and habitats for many species. However, the introduction of more pollutants and sediment from dredging and coastal reclamation have led to increased bleaching events in the Arabian Gulf[36]. 70% of existing reefs pre-reclamation have been destroyed and 27% are threatened or at critical stages indicating how changes to water quality due to reclamation lead to habitat loss[36].

Additionally, the impact of land reclamation on water residence time has been impacting habitats in the gulf and outside of the gulf. Water residence time refers to the period by which a parcel of water spends in a semi-enclosed area such as a bay, and it is often used as an indicator for the level of pollutants in a body of water[38]. Doha Bay in Qatar has seen an over five fold increase in residence time in most areas but some areas have seen over a 20 fold increase due to reclamation projects beginning in the 2000’s[38]. These increases will likely lead to rapid deterioration of the water quality inside and outside of the Bay impacting habitats by depleting oxygen, disrupting food chains, and introducing many pollutants[38]. Through this the indirect effects land reclamation can have on habitats are exemplified.

Collectively, dredging, and alterations to coastal morphology induce structural ecosystem shifts, and ecosystem losses over several years, altering species distributions, disrupting ecosystems, and causing long term implications.

Solutions

Local solutions

Local solutions aim to mitigate the effects of coastal reclamation immediately in a specific area. Such solutions are optimized to fit the certain scenario of the specified area and are customized to that area. This can be achieved by implementing a sustainable design of the artificial structure, regulating the waste management of the construction, and optimizing urban planning to minimize the need to do reclamation.

Sustainable Design of Artificial Structures

To reduce the environmental impact of coastal reclamation, improving the design of artificial structures could help mitigate environmental damage[38]. Minimizing environmental disruption throughout the construction process requires integrating sustainable and environmentally friendly design principles. This can be achieved by incorporating environmentally friendly and sustainable design principles. Environmentally sustainable design, such as implementing an arc curve for the edges of the structure, could have less impact on changes in water flow direction and seawater scour[39]. Additionally, including open channels throughout the artificial structure to allow ocean currents to flow through could improve water quality as it allows for better water circulation and exchange. This, in turn, helps maintain water quality, supports sediment transport, and ensures better nutrient distribution, reducing negative hydrodynamic impacts[39]. By applying these design improvements, coastal reclamation projects can better balance infrastructure development with marine ecosystem preservation.

Sustainable Waste Management

Regulating sustainable waste management helps mitigate the environmental impacts of coastal reclamation. For example, the Roberts Bank Terminal 2 reclamation project in Vancouver is reported to have implemented an erosion and sediment control management plan before development while also considering future climate change scenarios[40]. Another effective method of waste management is the application of a recycling economy model, which repurposes dredged mud as a sustainable backfill material rather than discarding it[39]. This method not only reduces waste output but also incorporates recycled materials into artificial structures, making the reclamation process more environmentally responsible.

Urban Planning and Land Optimization

A shortage of urban land is one of the reasons why coastal reclamation is happening—to make space for developing urban areas[41]. Increasing population is also a contributing factor, as more people require more space. Optimizing land use is important because it minimizes the need for coastal reclamation to create new spaces. When designing urban areas, it is essential to focus on efficient land-use planning to prevent unnecessary expansion into marine environments[42]. Improving urban land optimization through strategies such as construction land clearance and urban renewal can be achieved by reallocating and repurposing existing urban spaces, allowing cities to reduce the pressure for new reclamation projects[42]. Therefore, a comprehensive approach that includes improving land-use efficiency, repurposing underutilized urban land, and integrating ecological considerations into urban planning can help mitigate the reliance on coastal reclamation while promoting balanced development.

Global solutions

Global solutions aim to create overarching policies, regulations, and compensation systems that encourage sustainability across multiple regions and nations. These measures provide a necessary framework to ensure the long-term health of marine ecosystems. To develop the most effective approach, several methods that could help achieve the most optimal framework can be implemented, such as including an ecological damage compensation system, developing a comprehensive sustainability analysis, and advancements in scientific research and application.

Marine Ecological Damage Compensation System

A marine ecological damage compensation system is a framework that evaluates the potential environmental damage caused by land reclamation in economic metrics[43]. A damaged compensation plan must be made before every reclamation project and should be approved before the proposed project is approved[44]. The estimated compensation cost is then allocated to ecosystem restoration, with the responsibility falling on the project developer. A study conducted in Jiaozhou Bay, China, assessed this approach by categorizing environmental losses into four major groups: provisioning services (loss of fishery and animal resources), regulating services (degradation of water quality), cultural services (loss of natural seascapes), and supporting services (decline in marine biodiversity). All of these factors are impacted by coastal reclamation. The study then conducted deliberative workshops, revealing that participants were more willing to pay for ecological restoration once they became aware of the environmental consequences. However, the findings also showed a significant gap between willingness to pay and actual damage costs. On average, participants were willing to pay 1,326.56 CNY (~$216 CAD) per year for marine restoration, while the total annual ecological damage from land reclamation in Jiaozhou Bay was estimated at 12.46 billion CNY (~$2 billion CAD)[43]. This disparity suggests that the magnitude of ecological damage compensation compared to the public’s willingness to pay and take responsibility in restoring the environment is still low. This highlights the importance of how decision-makers should integrate environmental costs into coastal reclamation policies to balance economic development and ecosystem preservation.

Comprehensive Sustainability Analysis

To ensure the success of coastal reclamation projects and avoid conflicts, conducting a sustainable analysis before starting the project is required. A sustainable analysis before the coastal reclamation project starts could give insight as to how feasible and sustainable the reclamation is. A study in Hong Kong[9] evaluated the issues that arise in a land reclamation project from a sustainable perspective and constructed different modeling analyses such as the force-field analysis, PESTEL (Political, Economical, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal) analysis, and SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis. The force-field analysis is a framework developed by Kurt Lewin that is used to analyze problems and decide on the best course of action by identifying and comparing driving forces (which push towards a goal) and restraining forces (which act as barriers to achieving the goal)[9]. The PESTEL analysis is a framework that studies the macroenvironmental factors to help policy-makers understand the broader forces that affect an issue, in this case, coastal reclamation[9]. A SWOT analysis examines the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of coastal reclamation[9]. These three analytical frameworks are examples of sustainable analysis that can comprehensively evaluate the multiple overlapping factors that impact or are impacted by coastal reclamation.

The timing of reclamation activities is an example of a consideration that involves multiple factors, as processes like dredging disproportionately harm marine organisms in early life stages, such as larvae or juveniles, by causing mass mortality or reducing survival rates. Such impacts can be mitigated through pre-dredging risk assessments and the creation of temporal restrictions on dredging which avoid critical periods for spawning or nursery habitats[11]. These analyses support more informed and balanced decision-making by weighing the benefits and potential drawbacks. Additionally, by integrating multiple framework analyses, decision-makers can enhance both short-term and long-term feasibility and success while also minimizing risks in multiple aspects.

Advancements in Scientific Research

The development of scientific discoveries and techniques plays a crucial role in mitigating the environmental impact of coastal reclamation. Advancements in scientific research enable analysts to make more precise predictions about potential ecological damage. For example, a microcosm laboratory experiment examined how three different macrobenthic invertebrates from a proposed reclaimed coastal area in the Arabian Gulf responded to burial by marine sediments, simulating conditions during reclamation[1]. The study revealed significant survival percentages among the three species, demonstrating that microcosm experiments can provide quantified evidence of the expected ecological impact of reclamation projects. Beyond laboratory experiments, using mathematical models to predict effects of  proposed reclamation projects allows for more accurate environmental assessments and mitigation strategies. For instance, a study comparing two different methods for constructing an artificial island at Dalian Offshore Airport in Jinzhou Bay, China, used systematic metrics to determine that one technique resulted in lower seawater pollution and reduced fishery loss[45]. By employing mathematical models to predict and analyze water pollution and fishery impacts, this study highlights the importance of integrating data-driven approaches into decision-making for reclamation projects. These examples illustrate how scientific advancements and their application lead to more informed and sustainable decision-making. By providing quantifiable evidence, research can help predict reclamation impacts more accurately and support ongoing project reevaluation to minimize environmental harm.

In conclusion, the global approach to mitigating the impacts of coastal reclamation comes down to how decision-makers can develop and implement sustainable policies that balance economic development with environmental preservation. Achieving this balance requires a combination of ecological damage compensation systems, comprehensive sustainable analyses, and the integration of scientific advancements into reclamation planning. A marine ecological damage compensation system ensures that developers are held accountable for all the environmental damages they might inflict by providing the monetary insurance to restore the damages. Conducting comprehensive sustainability analyses provides a well-evaluated economic, social, and environmental implications of the reclamation projects. Additionally, advancements in scientific research and assessments can contribute to a more accurate data-driven prediction of ecological impacts. Ultimately, these factors enable decision-makers to make well-informed policies and regulations that minimize ecological harm while promoting both environmental sustainability and economic development.

Conclusion

To conclude, coastal reclamation on various timescales has many causes and impacts on marine ecosystems which serve as precious habitats for biodiverse communities. Projects in China, the Arabian Gulf, Hong Kong and the Indian Ocean were explored to outline the numerous facets and impacts of immediate dredging and artificial land reformation, permanent alterations to coastal morphology and habitat loss. Although coastal reclamation continues to occur at high rates as countries keep pace with growing populations, there are various global and local solutions to do with policies around sustainable design and waste management, land optimisation, compensation systems, sustainability analysis and advancements in scientific research to mitigate the impacts.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Sengupta, Dhritiraj; Choi, Young Rae; Tian, Bo; Brown, Sally; Meadows, Michael (4 January 2023). "Mapping 21st Century Global Coastal Land Reclamation". Earth's Future – via Wiley Online Library.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Stauber, J.L.; Chariton, A.; Apte, S.; Blasco, Julián; Chapman, Peter M.; Campana, Olivia; Hampel, Miriam (2016). Marine Ecotoxicology. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-803371-5.
  3. ↑ "COASTAL RESTORATION AND LAND RECLAMATION DREDGING". ECT Marine.
  4. ↑ Eisma, D. (2005). Dredging in Coastal Waters. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-39111-5.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Bo MW, Chu J, Choa V., Indraranta Buddhima, Chu Jian (2005). Elsevier Geo-Engineering Book Series (Chapter 9 The Changi East Reclamation Project in Singapore). Elsevier. Vancouver style error: punctuation (help)
  6. ↑ CEDA. "CEDA POSITION PAPER: UNDERWATER SOUND IN RELATION TO DREDGING" (PDF).
  7. ↑ Adamantidis, C., Thomas, C., Berthot, A., Cussioli, M., Bayley, M., & Carlyle, P. (2022). Estimating sediment generation from rock construction works. Coastal Engineering Proceedings, 37, 31–31.
  8. ↑ Reine, Kevin; Clarke, Douglas G.; Engler, Robert M. (1998). "Entrainment by Hydraulic Dredges - A Review of Potential Impacts". DOER – via ResearchGate.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Todd, Victoria L. G.; et al. (2015). "A review of impacts of marine dredging activities on marine mammals". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 72: 328–340.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Erftemeijer, Paul L. A.; et al. (2012). "Environmental impacts of dredging and other sediment disturbances on corals: A review". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 64: 1737–1765 – via ScienceDirect.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bash, Jeff; Berman, Cara; Bolton, Susan (2001). "Effects of Turbidity and Suspended Solids on Salmonids". Center for Streamside Studies University of Washington.
  12. ↑ Pirotta, Enrico; et al. (2013). "Dredging displaces bottlenose dolphins from an urbanised foraging patch". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 74: 396–402 – via ScienceDirect.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Harvey, E., Schramm, K., Saunders, B., Wakefield, C., Wenger, A., Ackermann, F., & Newman, S. (2024). Effects of total suspended solids on key fish species. WAMSI Westport Marine Science Program.
  14. ↑ Johansen, J. L., & Jones, G. P. (2013). Sediment‐induced turbidity impairs foraging performance and prey choice of planktivorous coral reef fishes. Ecological Applications, 23(6), 1504–1517.
  15. ↑ SCCF-recon. (n.d.). Retrieved April 2, 2025, from SCCF
  16. ↑ Cheung, S. G., & Shin, P. K. S. (2005). Size effects of suspended particles on gill damage in green-lipped mussel Perna viridis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51(8–12), 801–810.
  17. ↑ Morgan, R. P., Rasin, V. J., & Noe, L. A. (1983). Sediment effects on eggs and larvae of striped bass and white perch. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 112(2A), 220–224.
  18. ↑ Jessen, G. L., Lichtschlag, A., Ramette, A., Pantoja, S., Rossel, P. E., Schubert, C. J., Struck, U., & Boetius, A. (2017). Hypoxia causes preservation of labile organic matter and changes seafloor microbial community composition (Black Sea). Science Advances, 3(2), e1601897.
  19. ↑ Rombough, P. J. (1988). Growth, aerobic metabolism, and dissolved oxygen requirements of embryos and alevins of steelhead, Salmo gairdneri. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 66(3), 651–660.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Tian, P., Li, J., Cao, L., Pu, R., Gong, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, H., & Chen, H. (2021). Impacts of reclamation derived land use changes on ecosystem services in a typical gulf of eastern China: A case study of Hangzhou Bay. Ecological Indicators, 132, 108259.
  21. ↑ Yang, Y. (2021). Evolution of habitat quality and association with land-use changes in mountainous areas: A case study of the Taihang Mountains in Hebei Province, China. Ecological Indicators, 129, 107967.
  22. ↑ Magazine, H. (n.d.). Cities are rapidly reclaiming land at risk of extreme sea level rise. Hakai Magazine. Retrieved April 2, 2025, from Hakai Magazine.
  23. ↑ US EPA. (2022, July 29). Climate change impacts on coasts [Overviews and Factsheets].
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Saltwater intrusion | USDA climate hubs. (n.d.). Retrieved April 2, 2025, from USDA.
  25. ↑ Clayman, S., & Seebacher, F. (2019). Increased wave action promotes muscle performance but increasing temperatures cause a tenacity–endurance trade-off in intertidal snails (Nerita atramentosa). Conservation Physiology, 7(1), coz039.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Guo, H., & Jiao, J. J. (2007). Impact of coastal land reclamation on ground water level and the sea water interface. Groundwater, 45(3), 362–367.
  27. ↑ Magesh, N. S., & Krishnakumar, S. (2019). The Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, Southern India. In World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation (pp. 169–184). Elsevier.
  28. ↑ Canada, E. and C. C. (2007, January 9). Water pollution: Erosion and sedimentation [Guidance].
  29. ↑ Jones, C. M. (2006). Estuarine and diadromous fish metapopulations. In Marine Metapopulations (pp. 119–154). Elsevier.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Boer, S., Elias, E., Aarninkhof, S., Roelvink, D., & Vellinga, T. (2007). Large-scale scour of the sea floor and the effect of natural armouring processes, land reclamation maasvlakte 2, Port of Rotterdam. Coastal Sediments ’07, 598–611.
  31. ↑ Hughes, S. A. (n.d.). Scour and Scour Protection.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Lyu, H., Song, D., Zhang, S., Wu, W., & Bao, X. (2022). Compound effect of land reclamation and land-based pollutant input on water quality in Qinzhou Bay, China. Science of The Total Environment, 826, 154183.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Nitrogen and water | U.S. Geological survey. (2016, August 9).
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Afzal, M. S., Tahir, F., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2023). The role of environmental impact assessment in the sustainable artificial island development: A Qatar’s Island case study. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 9, 100111.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Al-Naimi, A., Karani, G., & Littlewood, J. (2017, June). EFFECTS OF LAND RECLAMATION ON MARINE LIFE ON DOHA COASTAL REGION, STATE OF QATAR. ISER 57th International Conference, Dubai, UAE.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Naser, H. A. (2014). Marine ecosystem diversity in the Arabian gulf: Threats and conservation. In Biodiversity—The Dynamic Balance of the Planet. IntechOpen.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Erftemeijer, P. L. A., & Shuail, D. A. (2012). Seagrass habitats in the Arabian Gulf: Distribution, tolerance thresholds and threats. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 15(sup1), 73–83.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Lecart, M., Dobbelaere, T., Alaerts, L., Randresihaja, N. R., Mohammed, A. V., Vethamony, P., & Hanert, E. (2024). Land reclamation and its consequences: A 40-year analysis of water residence time in Doha Bay, Qatar. PLOS ONE, 19(1), e0296715.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Chen, Y., Wei, Y., & Peng, L. (2018). Ecological technology model and path of seaport reclamation construction. Ocean & Coastal Management, 165, 244–257.
  40. ↑ Roberts Bank Terminal 2 Project. (2024). Vancouver Fraser Port Authority.
  41. ↑ El-Ghonaimy, Islam Hamdi; Javed, Needa (2018). "Concomitant of Global Warming and Land Reclamation: Designing a new interface between human kind and sea" (PDF). Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management: 2175–2186 – via IEOM Society International.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Hong, W., Wang, W., & Guo, R. (2022). Policies for optimizing land-use layouts in highly urbanized areas: An analysis framework based on construction land clearance. Habitat International, 130, 102697.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Shan, J., & Li, J. (2020). Valuing marine ecosystem service damage caused by land reclamation: Insights from a deliberative choice experiment in Jiaozhou Bay. Marine Policy, 122, 104249.
  44. ↑ Duan, H., Zhang, H., Huang, Q., Zhang, Y., Hu, M., Niu, Y., & Zhu, J. (2016). Characterization and environmental impact analysis of sea land reclamation activities in China. Ocean & Coastal Management, 130, 128–137.
  45. ↑ Yan, H.-K., Wang, N., Yu, T.-L., Fu, Q., & Liang, C. (2013). Comparing effects of land reclamation techniques on water pollution and fishery loss for a large-scale offshore airport island in Jinzhou Bay, Bohai Sea, China. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 71(1), 29–40.
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