Course:EOSC270/2022/Impact of Tourism on Marine Ecosystems in BC

From UBC Wiki

What is the problem?

Marine and coastal tourism is the movement of people to places outside of their regular location, near or on the ocean for more than twenty-four hours[1]. It is the largest sector of the tourism industry[2] and was largely responsible for the 39.72 billion dollars the Canadian tourism industry made in 2019[3] and for the 5.7 million international visitors British Columbia received in 2017[4]. However, it is also responsible for the destructive infrastructure, pollution, and direct human actions[5] negatively impacting marine ecosystems in British Columbia.

Map showing BC Ferries routes in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia[6].

Where does marine tourism occur?

In British Columbia, marine tourism is concentrated in Vancouver Island and its coastal provincial and national parks, the Gulf Islands, and the inlets in the lower mainland[7]. Cruise ship routes that start and end in Vancouver’s harbour also contribute to B.C.'s tourism industry as they extend up the coast, ending in Alaska[8].

Due to the vast extent of locations hosting marine tourism, the negative consequences of this industry can be found from the open ocean to coastal towns, beaches, and city inlets[5].

What human actions make tourism destructive to marine ecosystems?

The marine tourism activities in British Columbia negatively impacting marine ecosystems include whale spotting tours, seawalls, coastal and deep-sea recreational fishing, swimming, snorkelling and diving[7][9]. While all these activities can be destructive, large marine vessels that contribute to this industry, cruise ships and the BC Ferries, have some of the largest impacts on marine ecosystems. Cruise ships along the coast of B.C. continue to discard their sewage, polluted water, garbage and food waste in harmful manners as a result of imprecise and incomplete regulations[10][11]. Furthermore, the close proximity of B.C. Ferry routes to Southern Resident Killer Whales around the lower mainland[6], and their large emission of noise pollution, is causing the population of these key predators to decrease[12].

In 2018, the tourism industry contributed 8.3 billion CAD to BC's total gross domestic product, beating the forestry and the fishing industry[13].

Noise pollution, chemical pollution, plastic pollution, wildlife interference and habitat destruction are all factors caused by humans that contribute to the destruction of marine ecosystems[14][5].

How pervasive is marine tourism?

In 2020, British Columbia's tourism gross domestic product (GDP) dropped by 67.4% as travel restrictions were imposed to stop the spread of Covid-19[4]. However, as Earth’s population increases and modern technology renders travel to marine tourist attractions easier than ever, tourism is not slowing down[15]. Tourism's record-breaking contribution to B.C.'s GDP in 2018 was 8.3 billion CAD. This positioned tourism as a vital component of B.C.'s economy[13], and indicated that destructive economic issues would arise if cruise ships or the BC Ferries were banned or shut down.

But if tourism is not slowing down, what will eventually happen if we don’t find solutions to its negative impacts on marine ecosystems?

A drop in income for industries profiting off marine ecosystems will occur in the future, including tourism. This shift will be in direct correlation with the destruction of these ecosystems due to climate change and the mass tourism it has endured for many years, which will eventually render them unattractive and unpopular places to visit[16].

BC Ferries

How does this problem impact marine ecosystems?

SRKW population numbers from 1960-2020. Notice the mostly steady decline in population since 2005. From the Center for Whale Research as cited in EPA (2021). Accessed February, 2022.

One specific tourism practice affecting BC marine ecosystems is BC Ferries—an independently owned ferry company that connects people and goods between Metro Vancouver, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, and more [17]. In 2020, the company provided over 82,000 round trips[18]. Ferries disturb the coastal and marine ecosystems they travel through. One specific impact is increased noise pollution[19].

BC Ferries travel through extremely ecologically important zones. One of the most popular routes is through Active Pass—an area known for orca sightings[17][20]. The Salish Sea is also ecologically important; its waters are highly productive and it is one of the most biodiverse areas of the world[21]. Despite its ecological importance, BC coastal waters experience damaging high ship traffic. According to a 2019 study from the National Energy Board (NEB), BC Ferries in particular “undoubtedly contribute a large amount of noise due to their size, number of trips, and because their routes are widely distributed”[22].

BC Ferries has a particularly pervasive impact on Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), a species resident to BC coastal waters and classified as endangered in the Species at Risk Act[23]. One major factor for population decline is ship noise pollution[24]. SRKWs rely on echolocation (sound) to locate and hunt their prey (chinook salmon)[25]. The noise emitted from ships interferes with the sound frequencies the SRKWs use to echolocate[26]. The most significant contributors to noise pollution impacting whales are not tankers, but rather passenger ferries, tug boats, fishing vehicles, and whale-watching boats[27][28]. In 2017, Lacy and his team of researchers produced models to estimate anthropogenic effects on SRKWs; they found that ship noise can cause up to a 20% reduction in foraging[27]. According to the NEB report, 52-67% of lost foraging time is due to BC Ferries[22].

Lack of hunting success has resulted in malnutrition as well as the loss of numerous SRKW pregnancies, contributing to a decline in population.

Two images of Southern Resident K25, showing weight loss after two years. This weight loss partially occurred due to an inability to forage for salmon using echolocation due to too much noise pollution. From the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration as cited in Simpson (2019).[29]

What is the extent of the problem?

SRKWs are ecologically and culturally significant and well loved by the public; their extinction would be devastating. SRKWs are indicator species in the Salish Sea meaning decline in their populations can predicate a decline in other parts of the ecosystem. As apex predators, their loss can also have top-down effects on marine food chains[12].

Since 2006, the SRKW population has been in steady decline and has not shown signs of recovery. In 2005, there were 87 SRKWs, in 2020 there remained only 74[12]. If noise pollution stemming from ships such as BC Ferries continues to increase, SRKWs will likely face eventual extinction from inability to find food[30].

The future of SRKWs is not guaranteed if we continue our current trajectory. In response to BC Ferries pre-COVID plans to increase sailings, Jay Ritchlin, the Director of the David Suzuki Foundation, stated that “We’re already not doing enough to protect the 74 remaining southern resident orcas. Their future is literally in question"[22]. Fortunately for SRKWs, COVID-19 has slightly reduced BC Ferry sailing numbers[31].

Cruise Ships

How does this problem impact marine ecosystems?

Large cruise ship in southern Alaska, following a route which passes through coastal British Columbia waters. (Photo by Bill Stafford, Creativecommons.org.)

Coastal British Columbia waters are heavily trafficked by cruise ships, many en route to Alaska[8], which release an estimated 31 billion litres of wastewater each year[32] composed of several components which can cause large-scale and complex harm, reaching many trophic levels in diverse, sensitive B.C. ecosystems.

  • Sewage: A ship releases approximately 32 liters of sewage per person onboard daily[32], which, even after treatment, contains pollutants in a less dilute format than sewage processed on land[32]. Organic material in sewage prompts oxygen-depleting and potentially toxin-producing bacterial activity[33]. Particulate accumulation harms benthic life and filter-feeders[32]. Pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses cause disease in marine organisms, particularly cetaceans and pinnipeds[33]. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can prompt rapid plant or algae growth, leading to ecosystem changes and with algae, toxicity to fish and shellfish[33].
  • Greywater: Greywater encompasses other wastewater streams, including showers, sinks, laundry, pools, and kitchens[34], and for each passenger, a ship releases around 253.6 liters per day[32]. Greywater may contain similar pollutants to sewage, with added risks from cleaning products, food particles, and pharmaceuticals[35].
  • Scrubber wastewater: Cruise ships typically run on heavy fuel oil, and exhaust must be treated to remove sulfur oxides per regulations[32]. The treatment machines - scrubbers - generate acidic waste with heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons[32]. Heavy metals can harm organisms at the cellular level, bioaccumulate over time, and biomagnify through trophic levels[33]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other synthetic organic compounds also bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and disruptive to reproduction and development[33].
  • Oily bilge water: Cooling mechanisms, condensation, and other machinery within ships produce around eight tons of wastewater every 24 hours[35], which may contain heavy fuels, oil, heavy metals, lubricants, and even solid scraps[34].
  • Solid garbage and food waste: A one-week cruise may produce up to 50 tons of garbage[36], although primarily held onboard for the duration of the cruise[35].
Map of coastal British Columbia, annotated to show designated sewage areas in blue. The outer grey line indicates a distance of 12 nautical miles from shore (as added by OpenStreetMaps contributors). Locations approximated based on coordinates given in [34].

On a large scale, cruises produce carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to anthropogenic climate change - three times more per passenger than an airplane or passenger ferry[35] - along with particulate air pollution which can acidify shallow waters[34].

What is the extent of the problem?

British Columbia cruises increased steadily through the years leading up to a May 2020 ban due to the Covid-19 pandemic[32]. If cruise travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, B.C.'s marine ecosystems face increasing disruption and the industry a contradictory situation: passing through scenic areas for tourism value harms those sensitive environments[34].

Canadian regulations remain less precise than those implemented by the United States[32], though guidelines have been strengthened in recent years [37]. Certain chemicals (e.g. dry-cleaning, printing ink) are banned from release; bilge water must contain <15 ppm of oil and be released during motion; and solids must pass through a screen before release at sufficient speed >12 nautical miles from land. Greywater, filtered or unfiltered, may be released >3 nautical miles from land. Sewage must not contain visible solids or a sheen, and in most waters, fecal bacterial count must be below 250/100 mL. Release can then occur >3 nautical miles from land if processed and >12 if unprocessed, while moving >4 knots[37]. Designated sewage areas have more stringent regulations: bacterial count must be below 14/100 mL. These sites are protected from much sewage-related pollution, but not widely distributed[37], leaving the upper coast and ecosystems around the border of 12 nautical miles from shore vulnerable.

Solutions

Local Solutions: BC Ferries

Although BC Ferries has been recognized as an industry leader in underwater noise and greenhouse gas emission reduction[38], much remains to be done to effectively mitigate the impact of ferry tourism on marine ecosystems.

In recognition of the harm caused by noise pollution to Southern Resident Killer Whales (SRKW), BC Ferries has set a goal to reduce underwater radiated noise by 50 per cent overall[39]. In collaboration with consultants, the corporation is creating a noise control program to advise future vessel construction and retrofit designs for the current fleet. Modifications will combine the inclusion of fewer noise-emitting sources, soundproof hulls that muffle noise from wash, and quieter engines and overboard discharges[39].

The Island Discovery is a diesel-electric hybrid vessel operated by BC Ferries. It is one of the six hybrid vessels currently operating in the Island Class Fleet (Accessed from Wikimedia Commons).

Diesel-battery hybrid engines will also be incorporated into new vessels[40]. Although infrastructure is not ready to fully transition to electric power, ferries are well-suited to hybrid technology because they have predictable routes and can be charged while docked[41]. Consequently, hybrid vessels have served as a transitory step towards a quieter and emission-free future[40]. BC Ferries currently has six hybrid vessels in its fleet[42][43]. These ships, which have two propellers rather than four, are some of the quietest and most efficient ferries in the world[40][43].

In addition to changes in ship design, BC Ferries is studying the relationship between vessel noise and distance from SRKW. Another proposed method for noise mitigation is to have crews divert vessel courses away from areas in which SRKW sightings have been reported[39].

Global Solutions for our Local Waters: Cruise Ships

Cruise ships are a major source of marine pollution - a significant portion of the waste discharged into the world’s oceans comes from dumping of cruise wastewater and solid waste[44][45]. Around the world, various solutions have been proposed to mitigate the impact of cruises on marine life, and it is possible that these could be applied in BC to protect local ecosystems.

Investment in better waste treatment solutions could help reduce the industry’s impact on marine ecosystems[46]. This endeavour, while expensive, would improve the quality of wastewater being dumped, making it less harmful to marine life[47]. In building treatment systems, ship designers have prioritised density over efficiency, rendering sanitation devices largely ineffective. Even with advanced treatment systems present onboard, ships may still release high levels of ammonia, zinc, copper, and fecal coliform into the water. In Alaska, ocean rangers are stationed on cruise ships to monitor the effectiveness of waste treatment systems[45]. Similar enforcement of wastewater management regulations in BC could encourage cruise lines to invest in proper treatment - and to take responsibility for local environmental damage.

Steps are also being taken to try to reduce overall carbon emissions from ships to prevent ocean acidification[34] - certain areas have been designated as low pollutant-release zones[48], and to work within these regulations, companies are developing more efficient turbine engines[49]. These areas could be created in BC waters to prevent the effects of carbon emissions from harming our local ecosystems.

References

  1. ↑ World Tourism Organization. Economic contribution of Tourism and beyond: Data on the economic contribution of Tourism. (n.d.). Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.unwto.org/statistic-data-economic-contribution-of-tourism-and-beyond
  2. ↑ Papageorgiou, M. (2016). Coastal and marine tourism: A challenging factor in Marine Spatial Planning. Ocean & Coastal Management, 129, 44–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.05.006
  3. ↑ Published by S. Lock, & 16, M. (2021, March 16). Tourism: Contribution to GDP Canada 2019. Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/429959/contribution-of-tourism-to-gdp-in-canada/
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Value of tourism. Destination BC Value of Tourism Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/value-of-tourism/
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? Ocean & Coastal Management, 44(9-10), 601–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0964-5691(01)00071-0
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Discover our routes: BC Ferries. Discover our Routes | BC Ferries. (n.d.). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Industry performance. Destination BC Industry Performance Research Type. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.destinationbc.ca/research-insights/type/industry-performance/
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cruises, P. (2021, December 22). Princess Cruises: Alaska Cruises from Vancouver - 7-day Alaska inside passage cruise. www.princess.com. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.princess.com/learn/cruise-destinations/alaska-cruises/inside-passage-from-vancouver/
  9. ↑ Bulleri, F., & Chapman, M. G. (2010). The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a driver of change in Marine Environments. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47(1), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01751.x
  10. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Cruise Ship Discharges and Studies. EPA. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from https://www.epa.gov/vessels-marinas-and-ports/cruise-ship-discharges-and-studies
  11. ↑ Voo, L. van der. (2010, August 17). Cruise ships dodge US rules by dumping off Canada. The Tyee. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from https://thetyee.ca/News/2010/08/17/CruiseShipsDodgeRules/
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 EPA. (2021). Southern Resident Killer Whales. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retreived from https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea/southern-resident-killer-whales#why-important
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 The Power of Tourism: Destination BC. Destination BC Corp. (2021, October 18). Retrieved February 28, 2022, from https://www.destinationbc.ca/who-we-are/the-power-of-tourism-bc/
  14. ↑ Di Franco, E., Pierson, P., Di Iorio, L., Calò, A., Cottalorda, J. M., Derijard, B., Di Franco, A., Galvé, A., Guibbolini, M., Lebrun, J., Micheli, F., Priouzeau, F., Risso-de Faverney, C., Rossi, F., Sabourault, C., Spennato, G., Verrando, P., & Guidetti, P. (2020). Effects of marine noise pollution on Mediterranean fishes and invertebrates: A Review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 159, 111450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111450
  15. ↑ United Nations. (n.d.). Population. United Nations. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population#:~:text=The%20world's%20population%20is%20expected,nearly%2011%20billion%20around%202100
  16. ↑ Baldwin, G. (2020, October 20). How does tourism impact the ocean: Water pollution. Sea Going Green. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.seagoinggreen.org/our-impact
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 BC Ferries. (n.d.a). Discover our routes. Retrieved from https://www.bcferries.com/routes-fares/discover-route-map
  18. ↑ BC Ferries. (2020). BC Ferries releases year-end results. Retrieved from https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-releases-year-end-results#:~:text=BC%20Ferries%20provided%20over%2082%2C000,million%20passengers%20during%20fiscal%202020.
  19. ↑ McWhinnie L.H., O’Hara P.D., Hilliard C., Le Baron N., Smallshaw L., Pelot R., Canessa R. (2021). Assessing vessel traffic in the salish sea using satellite AIS: An important contribution for planning, management and conservation in southern resident killer whale critical habitat. Ocean Coastal Manag., 218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106015
  20. ↑ Bradshaw, K. (2018). Orcas spotted in Active Pass. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/orcas-spotted-in-active-pass
  21. ↑ “Importance of the”. (n.d.). Importance of the Salish Sea ecosystems. Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/cumulative-effects/salish-sea-ecosystem/importance.html
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Corbella, L. (2019). Corbella: B.C. ferries and whale-watching boats harm killer whales much more than oil tankers. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved from https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/corbella-ferries-and-whale-watching-boats-harm-killer-whales-much-more-than-tmx-oil-tankers/wcm/c6bf089f-673a-4ffc-9e06-a20eaad9a7b6
  23. ↑ “Species profile”. (n.d.). Species profile: Killer Whale Northeast Pacific southern resident population. Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/species-risk-registry/species/speciesDetails_e.cfm?sid=699
  24. ↑ Tyack P.L. (2008). Implications for marine mammals of large-scale changes in the marine acoustic environment. J. Mammal. 2008;89:549–558. doi: 10.1644/07-MAMM-S-307R.1
  25. ↑ Williams, R., Bain, D., Smith, J., Lusseau, D. (2009). Effects of vessels on behaviour patterns of individual southern resident killer whales Orcinus orca. Endangered Species Research, 6, 199-209. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00150
  26. ↑ Erbe, C. (2006). Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science. 18, 394-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01045.x
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Lacy, R.C., Williams, R., Ashe, E. et al. (2017). Evaluating anthropogenic threats to endangered killer whales to inform effective recovery plans. Sci Rep. 7, 14119. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14471-0
  28. ↑ WWF. (n.d.). Southern Resident Killer Whales. World Wildlife Foundation Canada. Retrieved from https://wwf.ca/species/southern-resident-killer-whales/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAxoiQBhCRARIsAPsvo-x1zdFln2cncFpzcvb6OhLt3F26-vrPYIQ1kipgMmktXbc0RGIP25waApUoEALw_wcB
  29. ↑ Simpson, N. (2019). Why the Southern Resident Killer Whales are dying. Capital Daily. Retrieved from https://www.capitaldaily.ca/news/why-the-southern-resident-killer-whales-are-dying
  30. ↑ “Southern resident orcas”. (n.d.). Endangered Species Coalition. Retrieved from https://www.endangered.org/campaigns/southern-resident-orcas/
  31. ↑ Watson, B. (2022). Staffing issues force B.C. ferry cancellations after company warns about impact of Omicron. CBC. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/covid-staffing-crunch-1.6309886
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 32.8 Stand.earth organization. (2020, July 14). Covid Pandemic Results in a Cleaner Coast: An Investigation into Unregulated Cruise Ship Pollution in Canada's West Coast Waters. https://www.stand.earth/sites/stand/files/stand-report-cleaner-coast-canada-shipping.pdf
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Islam, M. S., & Tanaka, M. (2004, January 17). Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 48(7-8), 624-649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2003.12.004
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Caric, H. (2012). Cruise Tourism Environmental Risks. In A. Papathanassis, T. Lukovic, & M. Vogel (Eds.), Cruise Tourism and Society (pp. 47-67). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-32992-0_5#aboutcontent
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Klein, R. A. (2010). Greening the Cruise Industry. Journal of Ocean Technology, 5(1), 7-15. https://research.library.mun.ca/2298/1/GreeningTheCruiseIndustry.pdf
  36. ↑ Johannessen, D. I., Harris, K. A., Macdonald, J. S., & Ross, P. S. (2007). Marine Environmental Quality in the North Coast and Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada: A Review of Contaminant Sources, Types, and Risks. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 2717, xii-87. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.4060&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Government of Canada. (2021, June 23). Vessel Pollution and Dangerous Chemical Regulations. Justice Laws Website. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-2012-69/page-1.html
  38. ↑ BC Ferries. (2020, September 1). BC Ferries receives prestigious Environmental Leadership Awards. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/bc-ferries-receives-prestigious-environmental-leadership-awards
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 BC Ferries. (2019). Long Term Underwater Noise Management Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/hd0/h89/8813696483358.pdf
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 BC Ferries. (2019). 2019 Clean Futures Plan. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/web_image/h11/h06/8798775509022.pdf
  41. ↑ Benecki, P. (2021, August 13). Hybrid propulsion solutions leading the way to a zero-carbon future. The Maritime Executive. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/hybrid-propulsion-solutions-leading-the-way-to-a-zero-carbon-future
  42. ↑ BC Ferries. (2021, July 15). Rising cost of fuel leads BC Ferries to reduce fuel rebate. BC Ferries. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/news-releases/rising-cost-of-fuel-leads-bc-ferries-to-reduce-fuel-rebate
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 BC Ferries. (2021, December). Island class ferries 2020. BC Ferries. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.bcferries.com/in-the-community/projects/introducing-island-class-ferries
  44. ↑ Macpherson, C. (2008). Golden Goose or trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in pacific development. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 49(2), 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and Sustainability. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18(1), 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107
  46. ↑ Berti, A. (2021, February 16). How can cruise lines reduce their environmental impact? Ship Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://www.ship-technology.com/features/roundtable-how-can-cruise-lines-reduce-environmental-impact/
  47. ↑ Perić, T., Mihanović, V., & Račić, N. (2019). Evaluation model of marine pollution by wastewater from cruise ships. Brodogradnja, 70(3), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.21278/brod70305
  48. ↑ Barone, G., Buonomano, A., Forzano, C., Palombo, A., & Vicidomini, M. (2020). Sustainable Energy design of cruise ships through dynamic simulations: Multi-objective optimization for waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and Management, 221, 113166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113166
  49. ↑ Armellini, A., Daniotti, S., Pinamonti, P., & Reini, M. (2018). Evaluation of gas turbines as alternative energy production systems for a large cruise ship to meet new maritime regulations. Applied Energy, 211, 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.11.057
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