Course:EOSC270/2022/Group 20 - Effect of Underwater Noise Pollution on Cetaceans

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Introduction

Illustration of the acoustic sounds that reach marine life[1].

The effects of pollution on marine life is a concept that many individuals are familiar with. Often, what comes to mind are the unfortunate impacts of plastic production, or the consequences of ocean acidification caused by carbon emissions. Nevertheless, one significant, yet often overlooked, aspect of pollution that has a large impact on marine ecosystems is anthropogenic noise. Anthropogenic noise pollution can be caused by fishing, recreational activities, military activities, shipping, and much more[2]. Human-generated noise has the ability to spread over vast distances underwater, disrupting the navigation, reproduction, predation, and communication methods of a majority of marine organisms who use sound as their primary sense[3].

The central marine group that suffers from this particular form of pollution is cetaceans, which include marine mammals such as whales and dolphins. This group of organisms is majorly impacted by noise pollution as it disrupts their acoustic functions, and thus their ability to communicate[4]. Anthropogenic noise has not only shown to have decreased the biodiversity of cetaceans, but has caused substantial difficulties for cetaceans to locate prey, communicate with their kind, and overall, survive[3]. These can result in the displacement of organisms and entire communities, as noise can alter the behavioral responses of organisms and interfere with their foraging abilities[4]. We will examine the impact of noise pollution on cetacean migration patterns and discuss some actions and solutions that are, or can be taken, to help protect these species.

Types of Cetaceans and Anthropogenic Noises

A picture of two types of whales, toothed whales (odontocetes) and baleen whales (mysticetes)[5].

Types of Cetacea

Cetacea consist of whales, dolphins, and porpoises. According to World Cetacean Database in 2016, 90 species of cetaceans live in the world’s ocean[6]. These cetaceans can be divided into 2 groups:

1.  Toothed whales (odontocetes)

Toothed whales have teeth. These type of whales eat marine animals such as fish and squid. Examples of this type of whale are sperm whales, beaked whales, dolphins, and killer whales.

2.  Baleen whales (mysticetes)

Compared to tooth whales, baleen whales have no teeth. Their mouths consist of hundreds of long stiff strips of baleen hanging from their upper jaws that act like strainers. These types of whales eat small fish and krills. Examples of this type of whale are minke whale, gray whale, humpback whale, and sei whale.

Most cetacea use echolocation for catching prey, migrating, and also socializing with other whales. Among all these functions, echolocation is most frequently used during foraging[7]. The cetacea will emit a call towards the prey which bounces off the prey. Through this mechanism, the cetacea are able to find food. One interesting study in 1961 found out that echolocation is not only used by the whales during the absence of light as in the study the whales also used echolocation in clear water[8]. The common range of frequencies used by the cetacea are from 30Hz to about 8000Hz in which only part of these frequencies can be heard by humans.

An image showing the movement of sound waves produced by seismic air guns in seismic surveys for oil and gas exploration which disrupts cetacea echolocation[9].

Types of Anthropogenic Noises

According to International Whaling Commission, anthropogenic noise pollution can be divided into two types, acute and chronic. Acute noise has high intensity, short in duration, and is usually pulsed. Chronic noise is long-term and low-intensity noise. These two types of noises give a lot of negative impacts marine animals especially on cetacea. The anthropogenic noise produced affect cetacea behavior and physiology and in worse case it can cause the death of small sea creatures.

Some examples of anthropogenic noise:

1.  Seismic survey (acute noise)

A seismic survey is used for oil and gas exploration. At very high pressure, air is driven into the water towards the seabed creating very loud, explosive sounds. This air is called air gun. The air gun has high intensity and low frequency impulsive at regular intervals between 10 and 300Hz [10].

2.  Military sonar (acute noise)

This sonar is used by military vessels during exercises and routine activities to detect objects in the deep sea such as enemy submarines[9]. These mid and low-frequency sonar systems produce sound pulses with as much energy and in as narrow range as possible. This low-frequency sonar is able to permeates thousands of cubic kilometers of water with sound and thus serves as a way of putting large areas under surveillance. Mid-frequency sonar uses 0.1 up to 10kHz of frequency and can reach up to 230 decibels.

3.  Shipping (chronic noise)

90% global goods are transported globally by ships. The sound produced from this shipping traffic is a common source of ocean noise and it interferes the natural sounds in the ocean. A low-frequency sound produced by those ships between 10Hz and 1kHz can be heard over long distances and thus disrupts cetaceans echolocation.

Effect of Noise pollution in the Past and Present

The change in the number of publications on underwater noise topics. There are limited research published on artificial underwater noise before the 1970s[11].

The importance of sounds for baleen whales was first proposed in 1971; In the early 1980s, the only research done regarding artificial ocean noise pollution was a Beaufort Sea seismic study[12], which researched the geography of the offshore ocean for offshore oilfields. The presence of underwater noise went largely unrecognized globally until experiments to test best acoustic methods to ocean property in 1955[13]. Industrial underwater noise most likely had behavioral effects on cetaceans before the 1980s, yet there are limited resources to determine the level of influence.

Ocean background noise levels doubled every decade for the last several decades in some areas[14] as a result of increases in marine traffic such as commercial shipping. It is estimated that the shipping noise level increased by 4.5dB from 1980 to1988 based on the traffic record. As industrial traffic and underwater exploitation increased, noise pollution had increased, affecting marine organisms' behaviors.

Cases

In 1983, a field study of gray whale short-time noise avoidance was conducted in Monterey, California. The study showed that the whales avoid the area with 110dB or higher playback sound source[15]. It also indicated slowing down before and after passing oil and gas developing sites, possibly due to increased stress from the noise.

Several local pieces of research indicate the noise pollution displacing cetacean communities. The study of killer whale sightings in Broughton Archipelago and Johnstone Strait, British Columbia in Canada showed that the population changed behavior[16], likely to avoid underwater noise. The observed site installed acoustic harassment devices (AHDs) to deter harbor seals predation in 1993. In the following year, killer whale sightings decreased while the sightings increased in the Johnstone Strait, adjacent to the observed site. The population in Broughton Archipelago re-established in 1999 when AHDs treatment ended.

The gray whale population in the Gulf of California abundant their calving/nursery area in the late 1900s[17], possibly due to noise increase. The aerial survey of the site from 1954 shows that the maximum number of gray whales sightings per person was 30. It decreased to 2 in 1984, and no sighting after 1990. The area is under the influence of increasing artisanal fishing and motorboat use, which likely promoted the avoidance of these sites.

The figure of reduction of low-frequency noise during the 2020 in response to the COVID-19, surveyed in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. A) Monthly spectrum of low-frequency noise. Asterisks indicate months during which spectrum levels were lower during 2020 at least one of the two preceding years.B) Percentile-dependent differences between 2020 and the prior 2 years[18].

Effect of COVID-19

With the recent impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, noise pollution decreased due to a decrease in transportation and industrial activity[19]. Marine organisms flourished during the period, including cetaceans; the seismic waves caused by human activity decreased by 50% in 2019[20]. According to the monitoring of several exclusive economic zones, underwater noise decreased due to reduced marine traffic in February 2020 from February 2019[21]. A study done in New Zealand during the strict lockdown showed that dolphin communication range increased by 47 to 519m every 10% decrease in vessel noise[22]. Though the long-term effect of decreased noise on cetacean migration is yet to be studied, the Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh) and the ports of Venice(Italy) observed the return of dolphins[23]. It signifies that reducing the underwater noise can recover the coastal population of some cetacean species.

Possible Solutions

Local Approach

In May 2019, to reduce marine noise caused by ships, the Government of Canada settled into a conservation agreement with Vancouver Fraser Port Authority, Pacific Pilotage Authority along with other major marine transportation industry partners in order to take initiative to promote the recovery of cetaceans.[24] The port of Vancouver initiated an Enhancing Cetacean Habitat and Observation (ECHO) program, which develops beneficial methods that would result in measurable decline in marine noise.[25]

A voluntary slowdown following the ECHO program took place in the Haro Strait and Boundary pass between July 1st to November 30th, 2021 where 90% of marine transportation organizations participated.[3] The baseline speed was 14 knots or less for vehicle carriers, cruise ships and container vessels, while large ships such as ferries and government vessels were asked to maintain the speed to maximum 11 knots.[3] Although there are no speed mandates in place currently, it is visible that through voluntary slowdowns, transportation organizations are putting lots of effort into reducing harmful marine noise.

Global Approach

To sustain marine ecosystems, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopts many acts and regulations to take action by rerouting ships to combat the negative effects of noise pollution. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) were taken into consideration to specifically pinpoint areas in the sea that are more sensitive.[26] According to IMO, PSSA is identified using a specific criteria which outlines the area’s ecological and biological value.[27]

Furthermore, the International Ocean Noise Coalition (IONC) was organized to investigate the concerns regarding manmade marine noise and possible solutions to maintain the health of Cetaceans, as well as the marine ecosystem in general. Partnered with over 150 non-governmental organizations, IONC is a wide and diverse organization with representatives on every continent.[28]

Effective Maintenance of Propellers

This image shows the result of a poorly treated part of a propeller. When propellers are not taken care of; no maintenance, it can easily lead to propeller cavitation, resulting in an increase in marine noise.

The primary cause for underwater marine noise derives from propeller-induced cavitation that is produced from ships.[4] Propeller-induced cavitation noise occurs when the formation of bubbles collapse with each other.  Larger machines such as engines and turbines all come together to create a very loud, high frequency sound that can be very harmful to Cetaceans. Recommendation from IMO states that the ship’s hull and propeller design should be the first priority to redesign in order to successfully achieve noise reduction.[29] Other effective methods include meticulously choosing equipment that coheres with low noise and vibration levels.[4]

Furthermore, other than redesigning the machinery structure, it is crucial to establish a maintenance routine. Maintaining a proper propeller cleaning schedule avoids the problems of build-up of plant, algae or various microorganisms, also known as marine fouling, to grow on the surface.[4] Consequently, sticking various microorganisms on the propeller significantly reduces the propeller efficiency, which can ultimately lead to cavitation.[30] Marine fouling is one of the main causes of propeller cavitation and it is extremely important to maintain a smooth propeller surface to reduce underwater noise.

Conclusion

Noise pollution has undoubtedly impacted many forms of marine life, particularly ones who rely heavily on sound for communication, predation, and navigation. The particular group of marine organisms that we focussed on was the impact of noise pollution on cetaceans. As we have seen, noise pollution is the result of anthropogenic activities, such as fishing, military experimentation, and commercial and industrial shipping. While there were limited resources available in the past to study noise pollution, current research, such as one done by the International Whaling Commission, shows that marine noise levels have increased dramatically over the years[3]. Furthermore, research that exhibits the impact of noise pollution on cetaceans is also available. The study done on killer whales in British Columbia is one of many that demonstrates the impact of noise pollution on the behavioural response of cetaceans. The results displayed the whales’ movement away from the acoustic devices, thus portraying the negative impact of anthropogenic noise on the migration of the cetaceans away from their home[16].

Despite the damage that has been done, there are ways that we can begin to minimize our acoustic footprint. Local and global initiatives, such as ECHO, IMO, and IONC, have been developed in order to decrease marine noise pollution and protect the well-being of cetaceans. In addition, the maintenance of propellers, as well as the use of equipment that emit lower noise and vibration levels, can also contribute to the decrease of noise pollution[29]. With further research and precautions, we can continue to discover more ethical approaches to protecting cetaceans from this form of pollution.

References

  1. ↑ [Untitled illustration of whale impacted by sound waves]. (2021). Canadian Marine Animal Response. https://marineanimalresponse.ca/what-is-an-emergency-response/
  2. ↑ Frankel, A. S. (2017, November 30). Predicting the acoustic exposure of humpback whales from cruise and tour vessel noise in Glacier Bay, Alaska, under different management strategies. Endangered Species Research, 399. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00857
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Weilgart, L.S. (2007, December 6). The impacts of anthropogenic ocean noise on cetaceans and implications for management. 27. https://doi.org/10.1139/Z07-101 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Gordon, C. (2018). Anthropogenic Noise and Cetacean Interactions in the 21st Century: A Contemporary Review of the Impacts of Environmental Noise Pollution on Cetacean Ecologies. Portland State University. https://doi.org/10.15760/honors.636 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Fluke facts and more. Irish Whale and Dolphin Group. (n.d). Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://iwdg.ie/fluke-facts/
  6. ↑ Government of Canada, F. and O. C. (2020, August 12). Government of Canada. Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Communications Branch. Retrieved February 8, 2022, from https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/mammals-mammiferes/cetacean-cetaces/info/index-eng.html
  7. ↑ Barret-Lennard, Lanceg., Ford, John Kb., & Heise, Kathya. (1996). The mixed blessing of echolocation: Differences in sonar use by fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales. Animal Behaviour, 51(3), 553–565. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0059
  8. ↑ Norris, Kenneths., Prescott, John., Asa-Dorian, Paulv., & Perkins, Paul. (1961). An experimental demonstration of echolocation behavior in the porpoise, Tursiops truncatus (Montagu). The Biological Bulletin, 120(2), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.2307/1539374
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Silent Oceans: Causes of underwater noise. OceanCare. (2016, October 24). Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.oceancare.org/en/our-work/ocean-conservation/underwater-noise/silent-oceans-causes-underwater-noise/
  10. ↑ Carroll, A. G., Przeslawski, R., Duncan, A., Gunning, M., & Bruce, B. (2017). A critical review of the potential impacts of marine seismic surveys on Fish & Invertebrates. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 114(1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.038
  11. ↑ Williams, R., Wright, A. J., Ashe, E., Blight, L. K., Bruintjes, R., Canessa, R., Clark, C. W., Cullis-Suzuki, S., Dakin, D. T., Erbe, C., Hammond, P. S., Merchant, N. D., O'Hara, P. D., Purser, J., Radford, A. N., Simpson, S. D., Thomas, L., & Wale, M. A. (2015). Impacts of anthropogenic noise on marine life: Publication Patterns, new discoveries, and future directions in research and Management. Ocean & Coastal Management, 115, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.05.021
  12. ↑ Richardson, W. J., Würsig, B., & Greene, C. R. (1986). Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena Mysticetus, to seismic exploration in the Canadian Beaufort sea. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 79(4), 1117–1128. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.393384
  13. ↑ Dolman S. J. and Jasny M. (2015) Evolution of Marine Noise Pollution Management. Aquatic Mammals, 41(4), 357-374 https://doi.org/10.1578/am.41.4.2015.357
  14. ↑ Weilgart, L. S. (2007). The impacts of Anthropogenic Ocean Noise on cetaceans and implications for management. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 85(11), 1091–1116. https://doi.org/10.1139/z07-101
  15. ↑ Malme C.I., Miles P.R., Clark C.W., Tyack P., and Bird J.E. (1984) Investigations of the potential effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on migrating gray whale behavior. Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/boem-newsroom/Library/Publications/1983/rpt5586.pdf
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Morton A. B. and Symonds H. K., (2002) Displacement of Orcinus orca (L.) by high amplitude sound in British Columbia, Canada, ICES Journal of Marine Science, 59(1) 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.2001.1136
  17. ↑ Findley L. T. and Vidal O. (2002) Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) at calving sites in the Gulf of California, México. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 4(1), 27-40.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285118962_Gray_whale_Eschrichtius_robustus_at_calving_sites_in_the_Gulf_of_California_Mexico
  18. ↑ Ryan, J. P., Joseph, J. E., Margolina, T., Hatch, L. T., Azzara, A., Reyes, A., Southall, B. L., DeVogelaere, A., Peavey Reeves, L. E., Zhang, Y., Cline, D. E., Jones, B., McGill, P., Baumann-Pickering, S., & Stimpert, A. K. (2021). Reduction of low-frequency vessel noise in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.656566
  19. ↑ Antza, C., & Stabouli, S. (2020). Reduction in environmental noise during COVID‐19 pandemic and cardiovascular disease: A mystery for further investigation. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 22(10), 1947–1948. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.14018
  20. ↑ Lecocq, T., Hicks, S. P., Van Noten, K., van Wijk, K., Koelemeijer, P., De Plaen, R. S., Massin, F., Hillers, G., Anthony, R. E., Apoloner, M.-T., Arroyo-Solórzano, M., Assink, J. D., Büyükakpınar, P., Cannata, A., Cannavo, F., Carrasco, S., Caudron, C., Chaves, E. J., Cornwell, D. G., … Xiao, H. (2020). Global quieting of high-frequency seismic noise due to covid-19 pandemic lockdown measures. Science, 369(6509), 1338–1343. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd2438
  21. ↑ Čurović, L., Jeram, S., Murovec, J., Novaković, T., Rupnik, K., & Prezelj, J. (2021). Impact of covid-19 on environmental noise emitted from the port. Science of The Total Environment, 756, 144147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144147
  22. ↑ Pine, M. K., Wilson, L., Jeffs, A. G., McWhinnie, L., Juanes, F., Scuderi, A., & Radford, C. A. (2021). A gulf in lockdown: How an enforced ban on recreational vessels increased dolphin and Fish Communication Ranges. Global Change Biology, 27(19), 4839–4848. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15798
  23. ↑ Chahouri, A., Elouahmani, N., & Ouchene, H. (2022). Recent progress in Marine Noise Pollution: A thorough review. Chemosphere, 291, 132983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132983
  24. ↑ Conservation Agreement. (2020, August 13). Port of Vancouver. https://www.portvancouver.com/environmental-protection-at-the-port-of-vancouver/maintaining-healthy-ecosystems-throughout-our-jurisdiction/echo-program/conservation-agreement/
  25. ↑ ECHO Program projects and initiatives. (2019, July 26). Port of Vancouver. https://www.portvancouver.com/environmental-protection-at-the-port-of-vancouver/maintaining-healthy-ecosystems-throughout-our-jurisdiction/echo-program/projects/
  26. ↑ Ship noise. (2019). Www.imo.org. https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Noise.aspx
  27. ↑ Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas. (2021). Www.imo.org. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/PSSAs.aspx
  28. ↑ International Ocean  Noise Coalition. (2018). International Ocean Noise Coalition. http://oceannoisecoalition.org/#Intl_Action
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Morin, H. (2018, October 22). Ship Quieting Technologies. Discovery of Sound in the Sea. https://dosits.org/animals/effects-of-sound/moderate-or-eliminate-the-effects-of-human-activities/ship-quieting-technologies/
  30. ↑ Ebrahimi, A., Razaghian, A. H., Seif, M. S., Zahedi, F., & Nouri-Borujerdi, A. (2019). A comprehensive study on noise reduction methods of marine propellers and design procedures. Applied Acoustics, 150, 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2018.12.004
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