Course:EOSC270/2022/EOSC270/2022/Group 9 - Effects of Invasive Lionfish in the Caribbean

From UBC Wiki

What is the problem?

The Lionfish Invasion

When you observe the appearance of the lionfish, your first thought would probably not be “an immense threat to coral reef ecosystems across the world”, however, that is exactly what they are. Over the course of a decade or more, lionfish species (P. volitans and P. miles in particular) have successfully established themselves in the Atlantic and Caribbean and have populated more than a million square miles of ocean since the start of their invasion (11). Their pervasiveness is not only impressive, but extremely threatening to the marine ecosystems they invade, as their authoritative existence could lead to negative impacts on industries and ecosystems around the world.

The venomous spines of the lionfish protect them from attackers (Source: Kuffer, 2006)

Why are Lionfish so Pervasive?

The widespread takeover of lionfish is catalyzed by various characteristics that allow them to be such dominant invaders.

1. Lionfish have a wide range of food sources

Being able to consume upwards of 70 other marine species (11), lionfish have plenty of food in the ocean, such as juvenile teleost fishes in coral reefs, as well as crustaceans (24) and are able to reduce the number of native reef fish from reaching maturity by almost 80 percent (25).

2. Lionfish have few predators, and can escape predation due to defensive tactics

Lionfish can escape predation due to their venomous spines that help deter predators (20), as well as their precise movements in the ocean that keep them out of sight (11).

3. Lionfish reproduce very quickly

Lionfish reach sexual maturity very quickly, being able to spawn eggs in only a year's time (11). Not only that, they also reproduce at incredible rates, with a female lionfish being able to spawn 2 million eggs every year (21).

4. Lionfish are able to live in variable habitats

Although lionfish dispersal is affected by ocean temperature, with how they prefer warmer climates (21), lionfish can live at a wide range of depths and habitats, ranging from the shore all the way to 300 meters deep (11), in places like coral reefs, and mangroves (26).

How Humans Created the Lionfish Problem

It is highly unlikely that lionfish naturally dispersed all the way from their Pacific native reefs to the Atlantic. However, they are popular aquarium species across the world, and theories relating to the cause of their invasion pointed towards these aquariums (23). What has been confirmed? That 6 lionfish were accidentally released from an aquarium in the state of Florida due to a hurricane in the 1990s. That genetic evidence from studies on the Atlantic lionfish show they come from other aquariums (2), which could be a signal of human-directed intentional aquarium release. Finally, that climate change is helping catalyze their invasion by increasing their habitat ranges from increasing ocean temperatures, shown by how lionfish have begun to colonize the Mediterranean Sea (22). No matter the true story, lionfish have completely taken over, and all the known evidence confirms that human impact was and still is a driving factor in the lionfish invasion.

How does this problem impact marine ecosystems?

How and why does it impact the identified ecosystems?

The invasive lionfish is a very adaptable marine predator. Especially in the coral reefs of the Caribbean, the rapid spread of lionfish has led to a massive decrease in the population of native coral reef fish species (1). They have a broad range in terms of diet which includes juvenile and adult reef fish along with some invertebrates (2). It must be noted that the most vulnerable populations of fish are those that are solitary and narrow-bodied that also reside near the seafloor (1). In some extreme cases, lionfish have driven local species near extinction. Studies show that left uncontrolled, the lionfish has reduced its prey population by nearly 65% while its own has increased by around 23 - 40% between 2008 to 2010 (2). Its greatest impact on the ecosystem, however, is that it devours important grazer fishes such as surgeonfishes and parrotfishes which helps keep the coral surface clean.

Lionfish's unusual colouring deters predators (Source: Di, 2008)

Are there unique characteristics of this habitat that make it vulnerable?

There are minimal natural predators of the lionfish. Because of its unusual colouring and venomous spine, native predators seem to be hesitant to attack the lionfish (1).. In some cases, the colouring allows them to look similar to seaweed or tube-worms (mimicry) (28). Another characteristic that leaves the species untouched is its diverse feeding habit, which ranges from ambush and corralling prey, to blowing jets of water to disorient it. While there are predators in the Caribbean that employ one of these hunting tactics, none have it all (3). The novel predator archetype along with its foreign colouring may have possibly contributed to the delayed predator recognition along with general decreased awareness from the native prey base.

A bluehead wrasse, a common prey item for lionfish (Source: James, 2012)

What organisms does it impact?

Analysis of their stomach content revealed that the lionfish's diet is comprised of many different families. In total, their diet consists of teleosts, crustaceans (shrimp and lobster) and mollusks in descending order. Moreover, it has been discovered that lionfish have a greater appetite - approximately 2.5 times - than a native fish of similar size such as the Coney Grouper (4). Its voracious appetite has led to reductions in species such as groupers and snappers. its effect on fishery species has been documented extensively. The lionfish affect such species in two ways: first is through direct predation of native species at juvenile states. By reducing their number before its adult stage, the lionfish grows more abundant in comparison to its natural competitors. The second is through reduction of generally smaller fish, through reducing the number of available prey base, it indirectly reduces the number of their natural predators (3). However, its greatest environmental impact is perhaps its effect on herbivores. Herbivores help control macroalgae which competes with corals for nutrients. Without herbivores, the algae grows unimpeded which leads to decreased oxygen levels and decreased sunlight eventually smothering the corals.

What is the extent of the problem?

Why are lionfish such a problem?

Lionfish have increasingly become a large and growing problem to the ecosystem of the Caribbean for a very simple reason, they are proficient hunters with few natural predators in the Caribbean (31). As one of the leading causes of a decrease in biomass of smaller fish in the Caribbean, lionfish are 3 times more effective at eliminating small native fish than native predators (7). As lionfish have exponentially increased in population, their unchecked effect on the ecosystem has had strong negative cascading effects on the predation rates of other reef fish. The decrease in biomass of reef carnivores and omnivores like the Red Snapper, Red Grouper, and Black Seabass has resulted in an increase in biomass density of the invertebrate community (6). As the prey for sharks, rays, and jacks decreases the competition for resources between these species has become more fierce resulting in a decrease in predator biomass inversely related to the increase in lionfish biomass (5).

This figure shows the dominance of the lionfish after its integration as an invasive species within the Caribbean. (Source: Arias-González, J. E., González-Gándara, C., Luis Cabrera, J., & Christensen, V., 2011)

How has the Caribbean changed?

Before the introduction of lionfish in the Caribbean, the native fish were not having issues with evasion as they had evolved to avoid the predators native to their regions (29). However, observations of free-ranging lionfish have shown that prey fish in the Caribbean make closer approaches to lionfish than prey fish in the Pacific. The typical predator evasion tactics employed by the fish of the Caribbean are not effective on lionfish and now these native reef fish have succumbed to prey naivety (29). As a result of this, lionfish density has progressively increased in regions such as the Bahamian archipelago, increasing to 390 lionfish per hectare which is several magnitudes higher than what is found in its native regions within the last 30 years (5).

What does the future look like?

The lionfish invasion in the Caribbean has no realistic chance of being stopped, but targeted removal of lionfish can help reduce the overall population in several areas (7). Extensive overfishing that occurs in the Caribbean, specifically with sharks and groupers,  has left lionfish with fewer natural predators as time goes on (5). Moreover, breeding patterns and the adaptability of lionfish. Female lionfish lay up to 2 million eggs per year, and lionfish have been found in multiple coastal habitats like mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, and up to depths of 300 m (31). The mere presence of lionfish prevents reef fishing from grazing as they normally do, and local extinction of some species is only a matter of time as the lionfish continually increase the diversity of native prey they consume (30). Furthermore, more than 42 million people are dependent on the coral reefs for food and lively. The lionfish invasion could have very severe consequences on not only the fishing industry but also the Caribbean’s $2.1 billion dive tourism industry as well (31). The potentially catastrophic invasion of lionfish could seriously change the marine ecosystem and cripple the Caribbean economy if left unchecked.

What possible solutions are there?

Biocontrols

Biocontrols are defined as the use of living organisms to deplete the population of a target species, often invasive (10). Large-bodied grouper (Ephinepheulus striatus and Myceteroperca tigris) have been confirmed as a predator of lionfish in the Caribbean(15) . A study performed along Bahamian reefs revealed that in regions with the highest biomass/m² of grouper there was a decrease in lionfish population in comparison to reef regions with lower grouper biomass(16). The population of grouper was once depleted by sport fishing which is believed to have aided in the invasion of lionfish in the Caribbean as they had few natural predators, with the 20-year ban on fishing in Excuma Cays Land and Sea Park (ECLSP) the grouper population has been steadily increasing. Protecting grouper populations could serve as part of the process of controlling the lionfish population in the Caribbean.

Regulated Culling

A diver on the hunt for venomous invasive lionfish. This species is causing environmental damage in the Caribbean sea so lionfish derbies have been organized to cull them.

Caribbean nations and tourism industries within them have long stood against any sort of hunting/fishing diving exhibitions and most Caribbean reefs have regulations on all fishing. Recently, with the invasion of lionfish, there's been a slight shift. Many Caribbean nations have begun to allow spearfishing lionfish as a means of culling their exploding population, the caveat being that in most nations divers must acquire a license to ensure responsible hunting(11). Spearfishing is more sustainable for the reef as it minimizes bycatch and damage to the reef compared to net/line fishing. This movement is led by organized groups of divers taking part in "lionfish derbies" where 10-20 divers can cull 100-150 lionfish in a single dive. One study was conducted to predict depletion in lionfish over 1000 m²/diver hour (time spent by one diver actively culling) with results showing an approximate 50% reduction in one hour and up to 90% in two and a half hours(19). There has also been some promising research into the use of traps to cull lionfish, targeting deeper water areas unreachable by spearfishers, however, spearfishing remains the dominant method of culling lionfish(14).

Lionfish cookbook released by REEF in an effort to promote consumption of the invasive lionfish.

Human Consumption

Many scientists and fisheries managers including The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) have shown support for an "Eat Lionfish" campaign(18). Restaurants throughout the USA and Caribbean have added lionfish to their menus and the Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) released a lionfish cookbook(17). Fishing on reefs is heavily regulated and thus there is rarely a commercial market for reef species, however, with the lionfish derbies being performed becoming more common there's now a supply of lionfish. There are two major concerns regarding this strategy: the possibility of creating a new issue of unsustainable demand for lionfish fillets and ensuring the lionfish are harvested and consumed safely. The former must be managed via careful regulations regarding sales and distribution practices and the latter can be mostly managed in a similar manner to how the regulated culling is managed (certifications for chefs and hunters).



References

  1. Hixon MA, Green SJ, Albins MA, Akins JL, Morris JA Jr (2016) Lionfish: a major marine invasion. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 558:161-165. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11909
  2. Eddy C, Pitt J, Morris JA Jr, Smith S, Goodbody-Gringley G, Bernal D (2016) Diet of invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) in Bermuda. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 558:193-206. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11838
  3. Albins MA (2015) Invasive Pacific lionfish Pterois volitans reduce abundance and species richness of native Bahamian coral-reef fishes. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 522:231-243. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11159
  4. Peiffer F, Bejarano S, Palavicini de Witte G, Wild C. 2017. Ongoing removals of invasive lionfish in Honduras and their effect on native Caribbean prey fishes. PeerJ 5:e3818 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3818
  5. Arias-González, J. E., González-Gándara, C., Luis Cabrera, J., & Christensen, V. (2011). Predicted impact of the invasive lionfish pterois volitans on the food web of a Caribbean Coral Reef. Environmental Research, 111(7), 917–925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.07.008
  6. Chagaris, D., Binion-Rock, S., Bogdanoff, A., Dahl, K., Granneman, J., Harris, H., Mohan, J., Rudd, M. B., Swenarton, M. K., Ahrens, R., Patterson, W. F., Morris, J. A., & Allen, M. (2017). An ecosystem-based approach to evaluating impacts and management of invasive lionfish. Fisheries, 42(8), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/03632415.2017.1340273
  7. Rocha, L. A., Rocha, C. R., Baldwin, C. C., Weigt, L. A., & McField, M. (2015). Invasive lionfish preying on critically endangered reef fish. Coral Reefs, 34(3), 803–806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-015-1293-z
  8. Capps, K. A., & Flecker, A. S. (2013). Invasive aquarium fish transform ecosystem nutrient dynamics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1769), 20131520. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1520
  9. Eating lionfish: An effective solution to ... - aquadocs.org. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://aquadocs.org/bitstream/handle/1834/36321/GCFI_65-62.pdf?sequence=1
  10. Eilenberg, J., Hajek, A., & Lomer, C. (2001). BioControl, 46(4), 387–400. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1014193329979
  11. Bottenus, T. (2017, February). Eradicating lionfish. Sailors for the Sea. (2020, February 7). Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.sailorsforthesea.org/programs/ocean-watch/eradicating-lionfish
  12. Gaskill, M. (2013, December 11). As lionfish invade the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, conservationists say eat up [slide show]. Scientific American. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-eating-lionfish-work/
  13. Hare, J. A., & Whitfield, P. E. (2003). An integrated assessment of the introduction of lionfish (pterois Volitans/miles complex) to the western Atlantic Ocean. Welcome to the NOAA Institutional Repository. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/17793
  14. Harris, H. E., Fogg, A. Q., Gittings, S. R., Ahrens, R. N., Allen, M. S., & Patterson III, W. F. (2020). Testing the efficacy of lionfish traps in the northern Gulf of Mexico. PLOS ONE, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230985
  15. Maljković, A., Van Leeuwen, T. E., & Cove, S. N. (2008). Predation on the invasive red lionfish, pterois volitans (Pisces: Scorpaenidae), by native Groupers in the Bahamas. Coral Reefs, 27(3), 501–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0372-9
  16. Mumby, P. J., Harborne, A. R., & Brumbaugh, D. R. (2011). Grouper as a natural biocontrol of invasive lionfish. PLoS ONE, 6(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021510
  17. Reef releases Lionfish Cookbook. REEF Releases Lionfish Cookbook | Reef Environmental Education Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.reef.org/news/press-releases/reef-releases-lionfish-cookbook
  18. US Department of Commerce, N. O. and A. A. (2016, July 14). Filleting the lion. NOAA's National Ocean Service. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/lionfish/eatlionfish.html
  19. Usseglio, P., Selwyn, J. D., Downey-Wall, A. M., & Hogan, J. D. (2017). Effectiveness of removals of the invasive lionfish: How many dives are needed to deplete a reef? PeerJ, 5. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3043
  20. Mumby, P. J., Harborne, A. R., & Brumbaugh, D. R. (2011). Grouper as a natural biocontrol of invasive lionfish. Plos One, 6(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021510
  21. Wurzbacher, J. (2011, September). The lionfish invasion. Sailors for the Sea. Retrieved February 7, 2022, from https://sailorsforthesea.org/programs/ocean-watch/lionfish-invasion
  22. Plymouth, U. of. (2016, June 28). Lionfish invading the Mediterranean Sea. Retrieved February 7, 2022, from https://phys.org/news/2016-06-lionfish-invading-mediterranean-sea.html
  23. Semmens, B. X., Buhle, E. R., Salomon, A. K., & Pattengill-Semmens, C. V. (2004). A hotspot of non-native marine fishes: Evidence for the aquarium trade as an invasion pathway. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 266, 239–244. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps266239
  24. Morris, J. A., & Akins, J. L. (2009). Feeding ecology of invasive lionfish (pterois volitans) in the Bahamian Archipelago. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 86(3), 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-009-9538-8
  25. Albins, M. A., & Hixon, M. A. (2008). Invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish pterois volitans reduce recruitment of Atlantic Coral-reef fishes. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 367, 233–238. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07620
  26. Barbour, A. B., Montgomery, M. L., Adamson, A. A., Díaz-Ferguson, E., & Silliman, B. R. (2010). Mangrove use by the invasive lionfish pterois volitans. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 401, 291–294. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08373
  27. Jean-Marc-Kuffer, Lionfish, 2006
  28. Albins, M.A., Hixon, M.A. Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ Biol Fish 96, 1151–1157 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1
  29. Anton, A., Cure, K., Layman, C. A., Puntila, R., Simpson, M. S., & Bruno, J. F. (2016). Prey naiveté to invasive lionfish pterois volitans on Caribbean coral reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 544, 257–269. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11553
  30. Hixon, M. A., Green, S. J., Albins, M. A., Akins, J. L., & Morris, J. A. (2016). Lionfish: A major Marine Invasion. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 558, 161–165. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11909
  31. World Resources Insitute. (n.d.). Atlantic and Caribbean: Lionfish invasion threatens reefs. World Resources Institute. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.wri.org/research/reefs-risk-revisited/atlantic-and-caribbean-lionfish-invasion-threatens-reefs
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