Course:ENGL211/New Criticism

Paradoxically Cool

History and Origins

New Criticism was a Formalist movement in literary theory which rose to prominence in universities during the 1930s and lasted as a common practice until the 1970s, though its incredible influence on literary studies is still strongly felt. New Criticism attempted to develop a, "rigorous, systematic, theorized approach to literature" in opposition to the impressionism which was common practice in the academic institutions of the time. New Criticism focused on the aesthetic value of literature, or “the text in itself”, doing away with the intentionality of both the author and the reader.

While the literary movement known as New Criticism is generally thought of as a phenomenon originating in the American South, much of the foundations of New Criticism were laid across the sea in England and France. The writings of T.S. Eliot were incredibly influential as he began to focus on the importance of symbology, eventually developing his idea of the “objective correlative” . In 1932 F.R. Leavis and L.C. Knights founded Scrutiny, a magazine of literary criticism which championed the moral centrality of English studies maintaining that the evaluation of literary works reflects deeper judgements about history and society as a whole.

However the biggest impact which Scrutiny had on New Criticism was in helping to develop the practice of close reading. While close reading (explication de texte) was prominent in French literary studies during the early 20th century it was a non-academic practice in English literary studies of the time. During the magazine's publication, Scrutiny: “stressed the centrality of rigorous critical analysis, a disciplined attention to the 'words on the page',” . a groundbreaking development in English literary studies which would help the new critics make close reading a common practice in the study of literature.

The name of the movement comes from the 1941 book The New Criticism by John Crowe Ransom, a professor at Vanderbilt University who taught and influenced Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, and Robert Penn Warren who in turn became the core group of new critics known as the Agrarians. In 1938, Brooks and Warren published a revolutionary textbook entitled Understanding Poetry which taught the new critical skills of close reading while valuing the principles of interpretation and poetic form. In 1942 Cleanth Brooks published “The Language of Paradox”, an essay which would further develop the close reading techniques of paradox and unity which New Criticism became known for.

William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsly published two incredibly influential sister essays “The Intentional Fallacy” and “The Affective Fallacy” which argued against the consideration of both the author’s intention and the reader’s response as valid literary criticism. It is in the work of Wimsatt and Beardsly where the desire to focus only on the text at hand became to take shape in New Criticism.

Though New Criticism is no longer a dominant theoretical model due to the emergence of theories such as Structuralism, Deconstruction, and Psychoanalysis the impact which New Criticism has had on the study of literature is immense. Some of the basic techniques which New Criticism ushered into literary theory are either still used in other theories, or were talking points from which other theories expanded upon or strayed strayed from.

Key Figures in New Criticism

William K. Wimsatt

William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley

Born William Kurtz Wimsatt, Jr. in November of 1907, Wimsatt went on to become a key pillar in the staunch parthenon of New Criticism. Wimsatt’s part in the development and re-designation of key terms, such as intentional fallacy, affective fallacy and the concrete universal have solidified his presence in this crucial literary movement. Wimsatt was born in Washington, D.C. and attended Georgetown University for his undergraduate degree. He later committed to Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut for his Ph.D. Indeed, Wimsatt was so enamoured with the school, he found himself taking a teaching position in the English department in 1939 and remained at Yale until his death in 1975, at the age of 68. Yale University, known as the “hotbed of new criticism” . provided an ideal avenue for the formation of Wimsatt’s ideas surrounding new critical practice. Wimsatt attests to the authority of a text. The written words of a poem, short story or novel present the tools that are needed for analysis and critical interpretation; a view shared by his American contemporary, Cleanth Brooks. Wimsatt was a scholar of eighteenth-century literature, thus many of his essays and works applied new critical techniques to poetry of this time. In one of his major essays, ‘The Concrete Universal’, Wimsatt explores the desired specificity of verbal representation, as this process is ultimately what determines a given meaning or effect in the text (not on the reader, as this would lead to committing the affective fallacy). Summing up Wimsatt’s main critical practice is the closing line of ‘The Concrete Universal’, “a criticism of structure and of value is an objective criticism” .

Cleanth Brooks

Cleanth Brooks: Ambiguously Smooth

Cleanth Brooks was born in October of 1906, and is known for his contributions to New Criticism, most prominently through his development of close reading techniques. Brooks was born in Murray, Kentucky, one of three sons born to Reverend Cleanth Brooks, Sr. and Bessie Lee Witherspoon Brooks. In his youth, Brooks attended McTyeire School, where he received a classical education, with heavy emphasis on argumentative reasoning. Brooks went on to study at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, where he received his Bachelor of Arts. Indeed, this was only the beginning of his journey as a literary scholar, as he went on to receive his Masters in 1928 from Tulane University, as well as continued as a Rhodes Scholar at Exeter College at Oxford University. In 1932, Brooks returned to America, taking up a position as professor of English at Louisiana State University. It was during his years at Vanderbilt, that Brooks met Robert Penn Warren, a longtime contemporary and co-author of the influential piece, Understanding Poetry. It was here that, “determined to teach the skills of close reading, Brooks and Warren organized their book according to principles of interpretation and poetic form, instead of according to the historical sequence of the poems and poets” . It was this de-historicization that met resistance from fellow literary critics; however, it was also this stripping bare of all elements, except for the text, that served as a call to arms for the New Critical movement. In his influential essay, published in 1942, ‘The Language of Paradox’, Brooks forwarded the development of the concepts of ‘paradox’ and ‘ambiguity’. Their relationship to the text is tantamount, and can only be uncovered through the practice of close reading. As such, Brooks’ de-valuation of historical context marked New Criticism as a new form of thinking, albeit a highly controversial one. Many critics were highly skeptical of this new anti-historical thrust, however Brooks was adamant that the organic unity of a given poem or fictional piece be at the focal point of a critic’s interpretation.

Parker, Robert Dale. How to Interpret Literature: Critical Theory for Literary and Cultural Studies. New York: Oxford UP, 2008. Print. 24. "Cleanth Brooks." Wikipedia. 10 March. 2016. Web. 14 Mar. 2016.

Key New Criticism Terminology

Paradox

A phrase or statement that is intrinsically self- contradictory; used by New Critics to demonstrate unity, as the two contradictory ideas manifest themselves into one single phrase. E.g. “We can dye by it, if not live by love” (John Donne ‘The Canonization’ l.28)

Ambiguity

Occurs when a word, image or phrase suggest multiple meanings. The effect of this is unsettling, and evokes what New Critics call ‘tension’. E.g. The flea in Donne’s eponymous poem, ‘The Flea’; the reader is unsure if the flea represents the two lovers or whether it represents the unbidden end to their affair.

Closed Text

The assumption that there is one intended interpretation of a text. This was discarded by the New Critics in favor of an ‘open text’ in which a handful of interpretations of a given literary text now became possible. The concept is mostly attributed to Roland Barthes, as he introduced the term in his essay, ‘The Death of the Author’.

Irony

This occurs when a word plays on the distinct difference between its connotation and denotation. This term was not coined by any New Criticists, however it remains a critical element in New Critical practice. The contradictory characteristic of this irony can add to the tension of a text. E.g. In Stanza 3 of Donne’s poem ‘The Sun Rising’, the speaker feels as if he can control the Sun; however he has ironically just described it as a powerful force that demands respect.

Tension

Evoked when a set of conflicting ideas or possible outcomes are not resolved. As such, the ideas are in a state of constant suspension. The lack of resolution creates discomfort for the reader. E.g. William Blake’s poem ‘A Little Girl Lost’ presents a tension between the innocence implied by her physical appearance and her engagement in illicit sexual activities.

Close Reading

The practice of interpretation re-imagined by the New Critics. Done through performing a thorough examination of the text and the words on the page. This method is still the most prominent literary technique taught in the high school classroom.

Organic Unity

The belief held by New Critics that literary work will form a self-sufficiency and completeness that is natural. Organic Unity does not occur in every text, rather only “good” literary texts follow this pattern and thus only texts that demonstrate organic unity are worthy of study.

Affective Fallacy

Originally coined by New Critics, Wimsatt and Beardsley. To commit the affective fallacy is to find the meaning of a literary text through our emotional response to it. Wimsatt and Beardsley were adamant that a text’s meaning remain embedded in the text itself.

Intentional Fallacy

A companion term to the affective fallacy. To commit the intentional fallacy is to focus solely on the author’s intent to find meaning in a literary text. Wimsatt and Beardsley were unconvinced that the author’s intention merited the best interpretation of a text.

Concrete Universal

This term was introduced to New Criticism by William K. Wimsatt in an essay by the same name. It indicates how universal a specific verbal representation needs to be in order for it to take effect.

New Criticism at Work

The Silence of the Lambs (1991 film)

Jonathan Demme's 1991 Crime Thriller, Starring Sir Anthony Hopkins and Jodie Foster

New Critical practices have not died out today, in fact New Criticism provides a unique lens through which one can interpret modern day film, literature and art. One need only to undergo a close ‘reading’ of the 1991 crime thriller The Silence of the Lambs. The film marks the birth of the complete sociopathic villain, the cannibalistic Dr. Hannibal Lecter. The scene in which protagonist, Clarice Starling, first meets Hannibal Lecter, occurs outside of his prison cell at the Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. A brief video of the scene can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecJrpY4fSlc

One would assume that the directed lighting is symbolic of each character’s innate nature, however this is not the case with Clarice and Dr. Hannibal Lecter. Rather than a dimly lit room with stark iron prison bars, the viewer is greeted by a brightly lit, paper scattered room, with a glass wall separating the young FBI agent from Dr. Hannibal Lecter. Paradoxically, it is the “good cop” Clarice who is left standing in a dimly lit hallway, the effect of which is startling in contrast to the brightly backlit Dr. Lecter. There is indeed a certain tension created through this effective lighting, as the viewer is unsure what to make of both of the characters. The physical space around them juxtaposes the stereotypical perspective of darkness as evil and light as enlightened, innocent or good. As such, the interpretation lies in the sense that neither character is as he or she initially seems, a key trope that is further explored as the film goes on. In addition, the position of both characters is done just so in order to maximize their similarities. As Clarice stands in front of the glass wall, there is no clearly marked dividing line, as there would be if there were iron bars. Instead, the viewer is left with the eerie sense that Lecter is able to cross the threshold and walk into the free world without any inhibitions. Clarice mimics Hannibal Lecter’s pose: straight backed, hands at the sides, giving the impression that Clarice and Lecter are both one and the same entity. The two characters merge, in a united front; this provides the viewer with the distinct impression that there is no clear line between good and evil; in fact, this ‘line’ is as difficult to distinguish as the glass that separates Hannibal Lecter from the rest of the world.

Further Reading

• Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1947. Print.
• Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960. Print.
• Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1929. Print.
• Wimsatt, William Kurtz, and Monroe Curtis Beardsley. The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry: Essays Written in Collaboration with Monroe C. Beardsley. University of Kentucky Press: Lexington, Ky., 1954. Print.
• Richards, I. A. Principles of Literary Criticism. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1961. Print.