Group 2

Group Members

Sophie
Hanqing
Ellie
Motoki
Soojeong

Article 1: Creswell Chapter 3: Five different qualitative studies

Examples of qualitative research models:

1. biography

2. phenomenology

3. grounded theory

4. ethnography

5. case study

biography

purpose: to study the story of a single individual

data collection: conversations, stories, participant observations, reconstruction of life experiences

phenomenology

purpose: to study a single phenomenon

data collection: interviews, observation

grounded theory

purpose: to generate a theory

data collection: data coding, scientific

ethnography

purpose: to explore cultural themes and behaviours

data collection: interview, observation

case study

purpose: in depth study of a `bounded system' (time and place)

data collection: interview, observation, documents, etc

Creswell summarizes an example of each:

1. Vonnie Lee: intellectually challenged individual (biography)

2. A nurse and her patients: the caring interaction (phenomenology)

3. Victims of childhood sexual abuse: survival and coping strategies (grounded theory)

4. A Principal Selection Committee: process for hiring a new principal (ethnography)

5. Gunman incident at a university: campus reaction (case study)

Article 2 Cohen et al. Chpater 23: Observation

Observation: "more than just looking"

Observation has many factors that can vary!

... observation can focus on:

- facts

- events

- behaviours

...observations can run from

- highly structured (know exactly what to look for)

- semi-structured (know the issues, but less systematic)

- unstructured (let's see what happens)

(and anywhere in-between).

...Observers may be

- complete participants (concealed member of a group)

- participant-as-observers (part of a group, but known observer)

- observers-as-participants (not a group member, some participation)

- complete observers (detached form the group, can be overt or covert)

(and anywhere in-between).

...further observation factors that can vary on a continuum

Quantitative <-> Qualitative
Time-bound <-> Open-ended
Short term <-> Long term
Descriptive <-> Explanatory
Laboratory/contrived settings <-> Natural settings
Direct observation <-> Indirect observation
Observing others <-> observing self and others

(and anywhere in-between) (`continua of observation')

Observation strategies and techniques:

Observational schedule
Event sampling
Instantaneous sampling
Ratings scale
field notes (key words, symbols, transcripts, descriptions);
diary entries;
context maps;
diagrams;
debriefing questionnaires.

Big idea: keep multiple sets of observational data that serve different purposes.

Other things to consider:

technology;
movement;
timing;
practice;
critical incidents;
ethics;
risk of bias

Article 3: Name

Case Study Purpose: Collaborative approach between participants and researcher in order to address contextuality

Specific instance that is frequently designed to illustrate a more general principle ‘study of particular’(Stake 1995) Providing example of real situations

Advantages of Case Study

1. Strength in Reality 2. Generalization allowed about an instance 3. Recognize the complexity and ‘embeddedness’ of social truth 4. May form an archive of descriptive material sufficient for reinterpretation 5. ‘Step to Action’; beginning in a world of action and contribute to it 6. More publicly accessible data compare to other research methods

Nisbet’s and Watt’s (1984) Strength and Weakness of Case Studies

Strengths 1. The results are easily understood (written in everyday, non-professional language) 2. Immediately intelligible (speak for themselves) 3. Featuring unique features 4. Strong on Reality 5. Provides insights for other similar situations 6. Can be undertaken by a single researcher 7. Flexible to incorporate unexpected/uncontrolled variables

Weaknesses 1. Not generalizable result 2. Selective, biased (not easily open to cross-checking) 3. Prone to observer’s bias

Generalization in Case Study Multiple case studies can contributed to a growing pool of data with greater generalizability.

Reliability and Validity in Case Studies Construct validity (through employing accepted definitions and constructions of concepts and terms) Internal validity (through ensuring agreements between different parts of the data, matching patterns of result ensuring that findings and interpretations derive from data transparency) External validity (clarifying the context, theory and domain to which generalization can be made ) Concurrent validity (using multiple sources and kinds of evidence to address research questions) Ecological validity (fidelity to the special features of research context) Reliability (replicability and internal consistency) Avoidance to bias

Good Case Study Qualifications of researcher 1. Effective questioner 2. Effective listener 3. Effective prober 4. Ability to make informed inferences 5. Adaptable to changing and emerging situations 6. Ability to collaborate and synthesize data from different sources 7. Privy to confidential or sensitive material

- A typology of observation studies

                      natural--------------------------artificial

unstructured --------------------structured

- 2 observations

 participant observation  - a part of a group, anonymous(not always possible)
 non-participant observation - sit at the back of the classroom coding up verbal exchanges between t/s

Advantages in the participant observation (Bailey) - when data is collected on non-verbal behavior, observation study is superior - investigator discern ongoing behavior - develop relationships with others (observation over extended period of time) - direct observation is faithful to the real life, holistic

<Planning a case study> Issues -particular circumstances of the case

possible disruption to participation might entail, negotiating access to people/ownership, release of data

-conduct of study including

use of 1/2 sources, opportunities to check data, triangulation, date collection method, analysis/interpretation, theory generation, report writing

-consequences of the research

anonymization to protect participation

8. Data in case studies:

1)Data collect

-6 sources of evidence: documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation, physical artefacts(pictures, furniture…)

-To collect the evidence data, there are two kind of collection: the actual data gathered, recorded and organized by entry; the researcher’s ongoing analysis/report/comments/narrative on the data

2). Data analysis

- computer-assisted software(NVivo,NUD*IST…)

9. Recording observations

-some tips for recording: as quickly as possible after observation; to write notes quickly according to the facts; dicatatingVS writing; typing notes; two copies; the content is full

10. Writing up the case study

-six forms: suspense structure; narrative report; comparative structure; chronological structure; theory-generating structure; unsequenced structure

11. Conclusion - Participant observation is best