Course:CSIS200/2024/Racialized Economies in Hong Kong's One-Woman Brothels

Introduction

In the glowing streets of Mong Kok, a vibrant district in Hong Kong renowned for its dense neon displays, a hidden economy thrives amid the dazzling lights and lively buzz. Surrounded by dynamic advertisements and bustling nightlife, an alternative form of business emerges, exposing the complex interplay of gender, race, and nationality within the sex work industry. The signs, rather than merely serving as marketing tools, serve as symbols of underlying socio-economic systems, with their service pricing revealing ongoing structural inequalities and cultural prejudices.

One-Woman Brothels In Hong Kong

I. The Socio-Legal Context of One-Woman Brothels

Signage of Price Listing of One-Woman Brothel

One-woman brothels are the most common form of legal prostitution in Hong Kong. Though the act of selling sex is not illegal, brothels, including one-woman brothels, are tightly regulated by law. Despite legal regulations requiring proper licensing for sex-related businesses, many of these one-woman brothels operate informally in neighborhoods like Mong Kok and Sham Shui Po, often evading the eyes of law enforcement. The presence of bright yellow signage everywhere in the area not only attracts customers but also conveys a hidden set of expectations that speak to larger societal dynamics. These neon signs are integral to understanding how sex work in Hong Kong operates and reveal much about the intersection of race, nationality, and gender within the marketplace.

II. Signage of One-Woman Bothels in Hong Kong

Inside Hong Kong's Red Light District

The sign with a price list for services offered by female sex workers in one-woman brothels serves as the central artifact. Interestingly, the list categorizes workers by nationality: Russian, Thai, Malaysian, Chinese, and Hong Kong, rather than by the type of service provided, immediately highlighting significant pricing disparities. The differences are not arbitrary, as they reflect broader social hierarchies influenced by stereotypes and cultural perceptions of beauty and race. For instance, Russian sex workers are priced more than twice as high as their Chinese and Hong Kong counterparts. In contrast, Malaysian and Thai sex workers are priced lower, revealing biases rooted in nationality and often their socio-economic status. The pricing structure illustrates how national identity and perceived desirability dictate the economic value assigned to sex workers, reinforcing societal biases related to race, migration, and gendered labor. The pricing pattern uncovers how sex work is shaped by both market forces and cultural narratives, contributing to the normalization of inequality within the industry.

Stigmatization of Female Sex Workers in Hong Kong

I. Negative Insults and Labels

A flat occupied by prostitutes working in one-woman brothels in Kowloon City, Hong Kong

Over the years, female sex workers (FSWs) in Hong Kong have reported encountering significant challenges, including physical and verbal abuse from their clients. They often have a greater risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and other health issues than women in the wider community, such as mental health conditions, including depression and anxiety, as they develop feelings of shame, low self-esteem, and social isolation. However, the negative emotions from their work do not necessarily result from the nature of their work but from the persuasive fear of stigmatization and marginalization associated with the industry.

Despite Hong Kong's status as a global financial hub with an international population, the city remains influenced by conservative attitudes rooted in traditional Confucian values. Individuals engaged in professions often experience harsh societal judgement, where they receive insults or are imposed with degrading labels, such as "cheap", "greedy", and "dirty". In Hong Kong, the slang "hen" (雞）is commonly used to name female sex workers because the word "hen" has the same pronunciation as 娼妓 ‘chang ji’, 妓女 ‘ji nu’ in Mandarin, a Chinese term to describe a female prostitute. For instance, some FSWs avoid disclosing their occupation to healthcare providers, which can result in untreated medical conditions and increased vulnerability to STIs and other health issues.

II. Challenges in Legal Protection

One notable challenge within Hong Kong's prostitution industry stems from FSWs' interactions with strict legal frameworks and law enforcement practices. Under Section 139 of the Crimes Ordinance, the organization of sex work involving more than one individual in a single establishment is strictly prohibited. Violators face severe penalties, including fines of up to HK$20,000 and imprisonment for up to seven years. This restriction implies that any apartment or establishment where two or more women are found offering sex services is considered an illegal brothel.

Despite the legal limitations on prostitution, some sex workers and operators choose to maintain brothels with multiple workers secretly. This decision is often driven by financial concerns, such as the reduced cost through shared rent and the rising demand for sexual services. Operators of these brothels and their employees are at heightened risk of arrest and prosecution. In the fear of criminal prosecution and charges against them, many FSWs are reluctant to report incidents of abuse or harassment and seek legal assistance and protection. Taking such steps may indirectly disclose their occupation to their families and friends, undermining their efforts to keep it hidden and avoid being stigmatized and marginalized.

This creates a profound contradiction. While the law in Hong Kong is designed to maintain public morality and social order, it paradoxically enhances the vulnerability of sex workers by indirectly restricting their access to legal support and protection. Consequently, sex workers face significant challenges in asserting their rights and ensuring their safety.

Racial Discrimination Within the Prostitution Industry in Hong Kong

Following the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997, the city’s status as a global financial hub continued to attract workers from various parts of the world, further diversifying the sex work market. However, despite changes in the demographic composition of sex workers, the racialized pricing structure remained largely intact. Sex workers from more developed European countries, such as Russia, were seen as more desirable, often commanding higher prices, while workers from countries perceived as less economically prosperous, such as Thailand or Malaysia, faced lower prices. This pricing disparity reflects not only racial prejudices but also the cultural stereotypes about beauty, class, and desirability that persist in Hong Kong’s sex work industry.

I. The Impact of British Colonialism: White Supremacy and Eurocentric Beauty Standards

The legacy of British colonialism in Hong Kong has significantly shaped the racialized dynamics within its sex industry. Under British rule, the city became a diverse hub of various ethnicities, but it also became a place where Eurocentric beauty standards were reinforced. Eventually, colonialism in Hong Kong evolved into a cultural phenomenon that imposed Western ideals on the population.

Illustration of the Effects of Beauty Standards on Asian Americans

White supremacy heavily influenced how different races were perceived within society. British colonizers constructed a racial hierarchy that elevated white Europeans while simultaneously devaluing the native Chinese population, portraying them as inferior and “uncivilized”. These colonial perceptions laid the foundation for how race and national identity would continue to shape economic interactions in post-colonial Hong Kong, especially in areas like sex work.

As Philip Howell, the author of Urban History, discusses his examination of the regulation of prostitution in colonial Hong Kong, he mentions that the colonial authorities implemented measures that strictly separated brothels based on race.This system not only regulated the lives of sex workers but also reflected broader societal attitudes that prioritized Eurocentric traits over local cultures. Western media, historically with blond, thin, and tall women, has shaped local beauty standards. The glamorization of Western beauty standards has led to widespread body-image issues, with women feeling pressured to conform to these standards, often resorting to cosmetic surgery or beauty products, such as skin whiteners and double eyelid tapes.

Russian women are often perceived through a Western lens as embodying an ideal of exotic beauty, which allows them to charge higher fees compared to sex workers from other ethnic backgrounds. This disparity is rooted in colonial-era attitudes that established European features as the standard for beauty and desirability. The pricing system in one-woman brothels, where Russian workers are valued more highly than their Southeast Asian or local counterparts, reflects how these historical racial hierarchies continue to shape economic disparities in modern-day Hong Kong.

Whispers and Moans (2007): A Hong Kong Film about Sex Workers in Hong Kong. Themes of the movie include homosexuality, hierarchy in the sex industry, and tension with Mainland China.

II. Migrant Sex Workers from Mainland China

Under the law of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong maintained its position as Asia's leading financial centre and has attracted migration from Mainland China to earn a higher income and improve their living conditions. However, not all mainland Chinese migrants have equal access to legal migration schemes. Therefore, female sex workers from the Mainland decided to either migrate or work illegally in Hong Kong without basic occupational, legal, or health protections within Hong Kong. The situation faced by Mainland Chinese migrant sex workers in Hong Kong creates an environment in which they are highly vulnerable to exploitation and discrimination.

Mainland Chinese sex workers in Hong Kong face pervasive racial and cultural biases. In Hong Kong, the term "北菇雞" is a well-known negative term to describe women from the Mainland who are involved in the sex industry. Rooted in colonial-era attitudes, these workers are often viewed as “uncivilized” or “unrefined,” in contrast to Russian sex workers, who are perceived as more glamorous and exotic. Such stereotypes influence clients’ preferences and the pricing structure in the sex industry, relegating Chinese workers to lower pay scales. Language barriers further limit their economic prospects, as many cannot effectively communicate with clients to negotiate terms. ​

III. Migrant Sex Workers from Southeast Asia

Protest of Foreign Domestic Helpers in Hong Kong

Since the 1970s, The Hong Kong Government has permitted foreign domestic helpers (FDHs) to work in Hong Kong to meet the shortage of local full-time live-in domestic helpers. As of 31 December 2020, there were about 374,000 foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong, of whom about 55 percent and 42 percent were from the Philippines and Indonesia respectively.

Southeast Asian workers, primarily from the Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand, make up a significant portion of Hong Kong’s sex work industry, often operating as freelancers rather than being tied to specific bars or establishments. Many of these women initially come to Hong Kong under domestic helper visas, seeking opportunities to support their families back home. However, the financial challenges of domestic work, such as low monthly wages averaging around HK$4,000, agency fees, and the costs of remittances, frequently push them to seek supplemental income through sex work. On their designated day off, which is usually on Saturdays or Sundays, many domestic workers gather on Lockhart Road in Wan Chai, where they engage in freelance sex work.

The health and well-being of foreign domestic workers have always been a serious but neglected public health concern in Hong Kong. Employers are legally required to purchase insurance for their domestic helpers to cover medical expenses and legal liabilities in the event of an accident or injury. However, this coverage is often minimal and inadequate for addressing serious health issues, including sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and mental health issues. Therefore, it becomes even riskier for foreign domestic helpers to seek medical treatment, as disclosing such conditions can lead to job termination and the subsequent loss of visa status.

In addition, societal prejudice and stigmatization are common challenges encountered by foreign domestic workers, highlighting the systemic inequalities that persist in Hong Kong's labor market. Women from Southeast Asia are frequently discriminated against because of their background in less developed countries, reinforcing stereotypes of them as low-status laborers. This perception follows them into the sex industry, where their labor is often devalued compared to that of other migrant groups. Engaging in sex work further amplifies these prejudices, intensifying their marginalization and limiting their ability to advocate for themselves.

Conclusion

The complex interplay of gender, race, and socio-economic factors within Hong Kong’s sex work industry reveals systemic inequalities deeply entrenched in society. The pricing structures in one-woman brothels and the challenges faced by migrant sex workers from Southeast Asia, Mainland China, and other regions highlight the persistent influence of colonial-era racial hierarchies and cultural prejudices. These workers, often constrained by restrictive legal frameworks and devalued due to their backgrounds in less developed economies, navigate the uncertainties marked by stigma, exploitation, and marginalization. The racialized pricing structure exemplifies how unconscious biases translate into economic inequities. Besides, these conditions emphasize the critical intersection of public health, legal protection, and societal attitudes, which collectively shape the vulnerabilities of sex workers. Efforts to address these inequities should focus on implementing systemic cultural reforms to destroy harmful stereotypes and build a more inclusive and compassionate society.

Author's Bio

Florence Tang (she/her) is a first-year student pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Commerce at the University of British Columbia. In Hong Kong, where she was born and raised, sexuality is often considered a taboo subject as a result of traditional Chinese Confucian values. In her early education, sex education was minimally included as part of General Studies in elementary school, but its implementation was inconsistent and lacked depth. Her experience in a co-educational high school was similarly limited, with only two mandatory sexuality talks facilitated by social workers over the years. The lack of open dialogue around sexuality shaped her curiosity and critical thinking. Motivated by the stigmatization she observed toward sex work in Hong Kong, especially against female sex workers, she aims to challenge misconceptions and strengthen her familiarity with the intersections between sex, economics, and labor by exploring the pricing disparities among sex workers in Hong Kong’s one-woman brothels.