Course:CONS200/2025WT2/The Politics of Knowledge: Western Scientific Conservation Knowledge Versus Indigenous Conservation Values

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Group 26

Historical Context

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The Western Conservation Movement

The conservation movement began in Europe in the 1700s with scientific forestry practices in France and Prussia aimed at regulating timber use. Early conservation efforts focused on preventing resource overuse. In the 19th century, rapid industrial expansion in the U.S. led to severe environmental degradation as private companies exploited land without regulation. This prompted conservationists to push for government intervention. The movement gained momentum when John Evelyn’s 1662 work Sylva highlighted deforestation concerns, making it one of the earliest calls for sustainable forest management.

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, figures like President Theodore Roosevelt championed conservation, leading to the creation of national parks and forests, the U.S. Forestry Service, and placing 230 million acres under federal protection. The Wilderness Act of the 1960s further set aside land for limited human impact. Conservationists were divided between two approaches: conservation, which advocated for sustainable resource management, and preservation, which sought to keep land untouched.

Examples of conservation thinking include John Evelyn’s Sylva (1662) – one of the earliest calls for sustainable forestry, George Perkins Marsh – recognized the interconnectedness of ecosystems and warned against deforestation’s impact on water systems and even the scientific forestry movement in Europe (18th century) – systematic timber management practices adopted in France, Prussia, and later the British Empire. Theodore Roosevelt’s also had major conservation policies like federal protection of land, national parks, and the establishment of the U.S. Forestry Service.

Indigenous Conservation Values

Indigenous groups from around the world have many different conservation practices. The Haida people, on Canada’s west coast, strive towards creating sustainable economic opportunities and protecting the cultural and ecological values using conservation. In New Zealand, the Māori apply restrictions such as on fishing or for allowing an area to recover. Despite their differences, the Haida and Māori demonstrate how Indigenous knowledge plays a crucial role in conservation.

The Haida

The Haida people, located on the west coast of Canada, for a long time have practiced sustainable management of marine and forest ecosystems through traditional ecological knowledge. In forests, they use selective harvesting of cedar trees, only taking mature trees while allowing younger ones to grow to ensure the long-term health of the forest. The cedar tree holds cultural significance, the trees are used for totem poles, canoes, and clothing, highlighting the importance of its preservation. When it comes to marine management, the Haida people protect herring spawning areas, valuing the species' vital role in marine ecosystem and advocating against overfishing. With efforts the people of the Haida nation made, including initiatives like the Haida Gwaii Watchmen Program. “The watchmen” refer to the totem poles that were set up around the villages and had three men at the top with high hats. The watchmen would keep a look out for approaching enemies, now it is known as a program dedicated to employing local indigenous people to tour visitors around the island, so the tourists get firsthand knowledge of the land. The people of Haida Gwaii work hard to take care of the land using current conservation practices while also using cultural and traditional knowledge.

The Māori

The Māori, located in New Zealand, apply the concept of kaitiakitanga, it means guardianship, stewardship, or protection of natural environments. It signifies the responsibility to preserve natural or marine ecosystem resources for future generation. A key practice following the kaitiakitanga, is the rahui, a temporary restriction that is placed on specific land or water areas to allow ecosystems to recover. The rahui is notably successful with overfishing management, where closing certain fishing areas for a period of time helps prevent overexploitation and allows fish populations to replenish. [6] Rooted in cultural and spiritual values, rahui reflects the Māori belief in the interconnectedness of people and nature, demonstrating how Indigenous knowledge contributes to effective conservation practices.

Contemporary Progress

Western Methods of Conservation

Specific to western modern scientific knowledge are methods of conservation such as:

• Watershed Restoration: Restoring watersheds to improve water quality and ecosystem health
• Mine Drainage Remediation: Treating polluted water from mining operations to prevent environmental damage
• Riparian Tree Planting: Planting trees along riverbanks to prevent erosion and improve aquatic ecosystems
• Soil Bioengineering for Stream Bank Stabilization: Using plant materials to reinforce stream banks and reduce erosion
• In-Stream Habitat Improvements: Enhancing aquatic ecosystems by creating structures that support fish and other species
• Grey Wolf Recovery Efforts: Reintroducing and managing wolf populations to maintain ecological balance.
• Sustainable Resource Management: Ensuring natural resources are used in a way that maintains their availability for future generations
• Sustainable Forestry: Practicing responsible timber harvesting to balance economic needs with forest health.
• Soil Building: Implementing techniques to enhance soil fertility and prevent erosion.
• Biodiversity Offsets: Compensating for environmental damage by restoring or protecting similar habitats elsewhere.

Many of these methods might be feasible since for example, watershed restoration and mine drainage remediation require significant funding and long-term commitment but have proven successful in improving water quality. While riparian tree planting and soil bioengineering are cost-effective and widely used, they require much time for ecosystems to recover.In-stream habitat improvements provide immediate benefits to aquatic life but need ongoing maintenance. Additionally, grey wolf recovery efforts have been controversial due to conflicts with livestock interests, making them politically sensitive, sustainable forestry and resource management are widely adopted but require strict regulation to prevent overexploitation, and biodiversity offsets balance conservation with economic interests, though their effectiveness depends on enforcement and oversight.

Preservation Vs. Conservation

It is also important to separate preservation from conservation as they are both different. Preservation seeks to leave nature untouched, preventing human intervention entirely (e.g., national parks where human activity is minimized) and conservation promotes sustainable use of resources, ensuring they remain available for future generations while allowing responsible human interaction (e.g., sustainable forestry and regulated hunting).

Weaving in Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Western science represent complementary ways of understanding the world. These systems create holistic environmental governance when brought together through approaches like Two-Eyed Seeing. The combination produces better conservation outcomes than either knowledge system working alone.

Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Indigenous Knowledge Systems contribute to environmental understanding through place-based observations and relational perspectives. These systems exist within Indigenous societies and function as a way of life that requires direct experience for comprehension. Indigenous knowledge considers connections between humans, living beings, spirits, ancestors, and future generations. The Kitasoo/Xai’xais Nation applies this knowledge in territory management based on generational wisdom about species movements, habitat use, and ecosystem changes within their cultural frameworks. This integration enhances environmental assessment beyond Western science because Indigenous knowledge covers extended time periods, encompasses socio-ecological relationships, and detects environmental changes before conventional scientific methods.

Two-Eyed Seeing

The “Two-Eyed Seeing” framework integrates knowledge while preserving the integrity of Indigenous and Western knowledge systems. This Mi’kmaw concept, Etuaptmumk, means “learning to see from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing, and from the other eye with the strengths of mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing, and using both these eyes together, for the benefit of all”. Two-Eyed Seeing supports collaboration in fisheries research that builds mutual understanding between knowledge systems. The systems work in parallel rather than in competition to explain complex ecological systems. This approach recognizes Indigenous governance alongside Western scientific methods for inclusive environmental decision-making.

Building Bridges

Indigenous-led research bridges knowledge systems while respecting Indigenous leadership. Research led by Indigenous communities ensures proper context for traditional knowledge and addresses community needs. The Slave River Delta partnership exemplifies this approach through Bayesian belief networks that combine Indigenous knowledge with Western science to measure ecosystem health. Camera trap research in western boreal forests shows relationships between industrial features and mammals that individual knowledge systems cannot detect. These approaches succeed because Indigenous Peoples lead rather than participate as subjects. The result respects Indigenous protocols, centers Indigenous priorities, and supports self-determination while benefiting conservation goals.

Contradictions Between Conservation Approaches

Generally, Western scientific knowledge and conservation view creating legally protected areas as the best way to help protect and preserve natural habitats and the wilderness. On the other hand, Indigenous conservation values place an emphasis on co-existence, which "connect[s] past, present, and future generations through storied relationships to land and water." The discord between these two perspectives has led to contradictions in how to approach the modern facilitation of conservation— Western conceptions of nature as something to be safeguarded from humanity conflicts with Indigenous people's long history of living reciprocally with the land, both nourishing and receiving from the Earth.

Nevertheless, with over 300,000 protected areas worldwide, making up 16.44% of the Earth's land, the creation of protected areas and national parks remains one of the most popular conservation techniques today. The creation of protected areas has invariably led to the commodification of nature, leading to ideas such as 'green growth' and 'fortress' conservation, leading to the eviction of Indigenous people from their ancestral homes, negatively impacting their livelihoods and discounting their rights.

Dispossession Through Conservation

For years, conservation through the creation of protected areas and national parks has been lauded as a noble cause that protects the Earth, conserves vital resources, and shields wildlife from human detriment. However, these protected regions and regions come at a price, particularly to Indigenous people, who are either forced off their land and displaced into reservations or must involuntarily leave due to lack of access to the resources they survive on. [Will be continued]

Green Growth

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Conclusion

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References

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