Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Restoration of Coral Reefs in the Chagos Archipelago

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Introduction

Collection of atolls in the Chagos Archipelago
Collection of atolls in the Chagos Archipelago (The names in green represent islands with dry land)

The Chagos Archipelago is a collection of seven atolls with over 60 islands in the British Indian Ocean Territory. These islands were largely uninhabited until the late 18th century, except when used for fishing expeditions by Maldivians. When British settlers arrived on the islands, native vegetation was converted into coconut plantations, and enslaved Africans were forced to work on them. After the emancipation of slaves in 1863, this group of inhabitants were called Chagossians and remained on the islands. In the 1970s, British and American military forces displaced 2,000 Chagossians to nearby islands in order to establish a military base on the Diego Garcia island[1].

Today, the Chagos Archipelago holds approximately half of the Indian Oceans coral reefs that are still in good condition, with low coral disease and high capability to recover after bleaching events[2]. The atolls hold very important and relatively undisturbed habitats that accommodate a high diversity of fish and coral species, and breeding grounds for other animals.

This hotspot of biodiversity became increasingly threatened and vulnerable due to pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification and warming events. Due to its successes in recovery following bleaching events compared to other reefs in the Indian Ocean, its protection was mandated by the British government. On April 1, 2010, 640,000 km² covering the atolls and surrounding ocean was established as a “no-take” zone and remains one of the largest marine protected areas[3]. Relevant mechanisms of restoration used in the Chagos Archipelago include the prevention of extractive activities, the removal of invasive species and increasing seabird population.

Background

Deterioration of the Chagos Archipelago coral reefs has been occurring for decades due to over-fishing, the invasive crown-of-thorn starfish (Acanthaster planci), environmental degradation such as pollution and natural events such as hurricanes and heat waves.

Coral reefs are the ecosystems most susceptible to anthropogenic activities.[4] As water temperatures increase so does the frequency of coral bleaching.[5] Compared to ocean temperatures 125 years ago (post dawn of the industrial revolution) oceans now are hotter and are continuing their trend of heating up.[6] Additionally, marine heatwaves are continuing to become more common; without drastic intervention, our world's waters could likely enter into a permanent state of marine heatwave.[6]

The first mass bleach event that the Chagos Archipelago experienced was in 1998. This and subsequent events were a result of ocean warming. Contrary to the belief that the environment of remote islands would suffer less, remote islands experienced equivalent or worse environmental deterioration from the 1998 ocean warming event. The Archipelago coral recovery was unusually long due to the lack of algae growth following the 1998 warming event. Due to the lack of algae growth the bare rock was uncolonized by macro-organisms for approximately 3 years. Coral mortality in the Archipelago’s reached a depth of 30m on seaward slopes, with the mortality of certain coral species reaching even deeper. The coral cover of the Chagos Archipelagos islands ranged from 50-95% before the coral bleaching and reduced to an average of 12% following the bleaching event. In shallow areas between 0-5m then coral cover average even reached 0%.[7]

Key Environmental Services

Coral Reef environmental services can be broken down into three broad categories. Biodiversity, Habitat, and Environmental Regulation.[8]

Biodiversity
  • Tropical coral reefs are incredibly biodiverse, worldwide they contain around 830 000 species.[9]
Habitat
  • Corals are foundational for environmental construction. They play a role in creating and maintaining sustainable conditions for similar ecosystems around them.[10]
  • Structural complexity provides habitat for a large diversity of species.[11] [12]
Environmental Regulation
  • Coastal protection: According to a 2014 study by Ferrario et al, 97% of energy that would hit shorelines is dissipated by coral reefs. Furthermore, this benefits 197 million people who live at the lowest elevations and within 50km of reefs.[13]
  • Reef coastline areas reduce and mitigate billions of dollars of expected storm damage.[14]
  • Coral mucus plays an important role in biogeochemical cycling. More specifically, it carries energy between reefs and other nearshore environments.[15]
  • Sponges transfer energy and nutrients between trophic levels.[16]
  • Coral reef fishers hypothesize that reef processes in and around reefs help disperse sediment loads.[17]

Coral Reef Vulnerabilities

Turtle captured swimming along a reef in the Chagos Archipelago

Coral reefs are the ecosystems most susceptible to anthropogenic activities.[4] As water temperatures increase so does the frequency of coral bleaching.[5] Compared to ocean temperatures 125 years ago (post dawn of the industrial revolution) oceans now are hotter and are continuing their trend of heating up.[6] Additionally, marine heatwaves are continuing to become more common; without drastic intervention, our world's waters could likely enter into a permanent state of marine heatwave.[6]

Even though the Chagos Archipelago is a no take zone, illegal fishing still occurs and can easily result in severe population decline. Species of sicklefin, bentfin, and spinetail devil rays are all filter feeders whose populations have declined as a result.[18] The illegal fishing has caused such large declines that the species are now listed as endangered on the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species.

Current Remedial Actions

Background information

There have been island restoration efforts which began when Chagos was still a British territory.[19] Restoration efforts include reducing rat populations and removing coconut palm. Coconut plantations have been the main source of employment and the foundation of the Chagos islands' economy throughout their established colonial existence.[20] Also referred to as the Oil Islands, they were mostly dependent on the export of copra, or dried coconut flesh, which was used to extract coconut oil, which was then processed for energy and used in Mauritius and elsewhere to make soap and other goods, but now coconut palm is a serious threat to the coral reefs.[4]

By restoring abandoned coconut plantations and eliminating rats, a more natural, seabird-driven ecosystem will be able to regenerate.[21] This will lead to healthier islands and coral reefs while providing a sanctuary for native species like the iconic coconut crab and red-footed booby. [21]

Connection between seabirds and rats

In 2018 scientists discovered there is a direct correlation between island seabird populations and key coral reef health indicators, such as herbivorous fish populations.[21] When seabirds come to land from their offshore feeding grounds, they are among the mobile animals that are essential moving and concentrating nutrients to nearshore coral reefs.[22] Seabirds rely on the ocean for food, and their droppings naturally fertilize the corals around the islands they live on.[21] However, when rats are introduced, this relationship is disrupted as they reduce seabird populations by consuming eggs and chicks and damage native plants.[21]

Researchers discovered that seabird densities and nitrogen deposition rates are 760 and 251 times greater, respectively, on islands free from rats.[21] Coral growth rates were increased at the individual and island levels by nutrients ingested by the corals from seabirds.[22] The reefs around these rat-free islands also show higher fish biomass and coral reef productivity, suggesting these factors may help increase resilience to coral bleaching.[21] These findings highlight the crucial role that rat eradication and seabird restoration play in maintaining the health of both island ecosystems and coral reefs, underscoring the need for continued and holistic conservation efforts.

Similar projects

A tiny island in the eastern Peros Banhos Strict Nature Reserve called Ile Vache Marine had a similar problem with rat infestations.[21] This island is part of the IUCN Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas which is designated for their breeding seabird populations.[21] As a component of the Ile Vache Marine Restoration Project, CCT carried out an invasive rat eradication operation in 2014.[21]

Using internationally accepted standards, the island was formally proclaimed rat-free in 2017, and native plants and animals have since returned.[21] As the first successful rat eradication effort on an archipelagic island, this served as proof of concept and served as the foundation for CCT's Healthy Islands, Healthy Reefs initiative.[21]

Barton Point Native Hardwood Restoration Project

There is currently a restoration effort called The Barton Point Native Hardwood Restoration Project, where the management and removal of non-native vegetation such as coconut palm which is the predominant introduced species on many, if not all, of the islands and atolls.[20] This species should be controlled through selective cutting to encourage the regeneration of native plant life.[20] The abandonment of coconut monoculture Cocos nucifera restores what was there prior to the plantation era.[20] The remnant stands have created dense, overgrown zones that are nearly inhospitable to any other flora on any islands where coconut was farmed as a crop.[20]

Coconut palms pose three main challenges. First, their fronds block sunlight from reaching the ground, and fallen fronds accumulate, preventing the regeneration of other species.[20] Second, coconut palms offer shelter and food for rats, a pest that was unintentionally introduced to the islands by humans.[20] Third, replacing coconut palms with native hardwoods would create additional nesting sites for the red-footed booby, whose colony in the Barton Point Reserve is now the largest in the Indian Ocean and one of the largest in the world.[20]

The Restoration Project involved removing coconut palms, clearing coconuts from the ground to prevent reseeding, and replanting hardwoods.[20] The goal of replacing coconut trees with hardwoods is not to make the area more livable for humans, but rather to make it more livable for the native red-footed booby, which will increase biodiversity, while also eliminating a habitat that invasive rats like.[20]

In 2011, it was reported that the team was pleased to see how quickly the natural recovery of native forest occurred once the coconuts were removed.[20] As the rat population declines, seabird numbers are likely to rise, boosting the health of the coral reefs. This sets off a positive cycle that continues to reinforce itself until the ecosystem is fully restored.

Challenges faced during the Barton Point Native Hardwood Restoration Project

The biggest problem faced is the ideology of conservation which has cost the native Chagossian many problems.[23] Three interconnected factors contribute to the militarisation of environmental science built around the Chagos and the expanding research operations.[23]

First, Chagossian discussions with the Western environmental scientists to develop a conservation strategy that is both environmentally and socioculturally sustainable has been a struggle.[23] Even while both sides have stated a desire to exchange information and establish conservation priorities through a democratic process, their deep-rooted exclusionist attitudes prevents them from working together effectively.[23]

Second, by using ecological restoration that sees the Chagossian as dangerous, it ignores the Chagossian history and memory.[23] The politics of the coconut are at the centre of the disagreement. Chagossian settlement is sanctioned by a knowledge-fear-security connection, which also portrays the Chagossian-coconut relationship as exploitative rather than caring.[23] The outcome is a complete fear of a constant threat, against which causes continuous defence of forces.[23]

Third, the memory of the past is suppressed by fear.[23] Many scientists today either ignore or simplify the historical evidence, based on the assumption that the existing landscape is damaged from earlier times and that unpopulated wilderness is the norm.[23] It suggests that conventional, non-experimental, and sentimental Chagossian knowledge can be better understood by appropriate research.[23]

The Path Forward

In order to prevent the Chagos Archipelago coral reef's continued decline in ecosystem biodiversity and to ensure its continued existence and recovery, its stressors must be mitigated.[24] [25] [26] General stressors may prove more difficult to prevent, such as ocean warming, because their sources are not from one or even a few variables. Global-scale systems are composed of many unique variables that cover a broad range of topics. Mitigating or completely preventing damage from this scale will likely require the massive reorganization of economies in order to pursue more sustainable infrastructure that reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and sequester additional current atmospheric greenhouse gasses. Regardless, understanding the intricacies of this ecosystem plays an important role in choosing the best suited solutions to mitigate threats. For this reason, continued research of the Chagos Archipelago coral reefs is beneficial to its conservation efforts.

Research Potential

As one of the world's largest Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), the Chagos Archipelago area is valuable to researchers who want to better understand the impacts of climate change on a given area.[26] What makes this specific area special is the sheer size of the entire MPA; facilitating easier research into more extensive ecosystem variables. Additionally, paired with its distance from anthropogenic activities, the Chagos Archipelago can act as a case study for researching just how far anthropogenic impacts can travel.

One such example is the study of anthropogenic marine debris (AMD).[27] This study observed the accumulations of AMDs on different kinds of beaches in turtle nesting zones. The Chagos Archipelago island beaches offered evidence to support a popular hypothesis that AMDs are mainly a plastic problem. Furthermore, to help reduce risks to wildlife the authors explicitly emphasized the need for targeted clean-ups of beaches beyond simply commonly inhabited areas. Their evidence goes to show that even in an uninhabited place far from civilization, anthropogenic impacts are still creating risks for wildlife, such as the turtle nesting areas from the study.

Potential areas for research include but are not limited to:

1) Clarifying the trophic roles of herbivorous and detritivorous reef fishes.[28] [29]

  • By clarifying these roles we can better understand reef resilience to climate change and fishing.
  • There are key species that drive the differences in fish assemblages, which describes an ecosystems abundance and richness. Among these species are surgeonfish who graze on epilithic algae and keep algal growth in balance. Additionally there is the parrot fish who grazes on the nutrients held within a coral's calcareous matrix. Together, these herbivorous fish play an important role in keeping levels of macroalgae down.[28]
Parrot fish grazing on the nutrients found on coral reefs.

2) Reef ecosystem and trophic interactions.

  • Research has shown that sharks may have less of an effect on a top-down trophic cascade than we previously thought. Instead, through large-scale field research it is seen that benthic feeding fish play an important role in the recruitment of coral recovery This indicates a bottom-up trophic cascade. This research also suggests that focusing on the recovery of herbivorous fish through the establishment of MPA’s will be a key factor in regulating benthic feeding fish and algae populations to maintain a balanced ecosystem.[29]

3) Reef resilience factors.

  • Research is showing that when a heat wave is occurring, coral reefs may benefit more from rough ocean conditions than a calm ocean. This means coral reefs can benefit from increased storms associated with climate change. The benefits are due to waves being able to dissipate heat and mixing the water. When ocean water is stagnant layers of toxic oxygen radicals can build up, contributing to the deterioration of the reefs. Therefore, coral reefs in areas with high levels of water flow have a higher resistance to warming ocean temperatures than those in areas with calm, stagnant water.[30]
  • The colour of coral reefs has a correlation to their resilience to warming ocean temperatures. It is seen that coral reefs with tissue that is a darker colour have a larger impact on the tissue-water interface. This means that these darker coral reefs have a larger impact on the temperature of the surrounding water. Research has shown that the water around darker coral reefs can be up to 1.5℃ warmer than their lighter counterparts.[30]

4) Global trends and impacts.

  • By recognizing current trends and their impacts, we can begin to model future trends and their impacts, giving us the opportunity to pre-emptively mitigate damages or anticipate the consequences.
  • There is some evidence to support the idea that the role of fishes on reef recovery does not vary with human impact.[29] This is not to say that anthropogenic activities don't carry detrimental consequences to marine life and the planet as a whole, because they certainly do.[31] Instead of mitigating direct human impacts on coral reefs it's possible that effort would be better spent by focusing more on supporting fish species if the aim is promoting the recovery of reef ecosystems.
  • In a 2022 study by Yao & Wang,[6] they model how marine heatwaves are seeing an increased number of total days and average duration over the year, while marine cold-spells are seeing the opposite trend. Both sides of marine extreme weather are detrimental for coral reef health.

Potential Pathways

Technological

1) Continued environmental monitoring.

2) Promoting herbivorous fish species.

  • Evidence supports the hypothesis that in large MPA's herbivores' role in keeping the growth of algae in check is especially important during the recovery periods of coral.[29] These fishes were found to significantly promote crustose coralline algae (CCA) as well as decreasing macroalgae populations. CCAs are important due to their role as food source in substrate for species of limpets and other intertidal herbivores.[32]

3) Promoting reef structural complexity.

  • Reefs that had a high structural complexity as well as the fast growing table coral Acropora spp. saw a 3x faster recovery in carbonate production.[33] This is important in order for the reef to return to a positive carbonate budget. Carbonate is an important mineral for marine life across the globe, it plays a structural role for the shells and bodies of lots of marine life like corals and shells.[34]

4) Climate mitigation technology.

  • Environmental factors that can mitigate coral bleaching include low light (depth), shading, cloud cover, high ocean movement, lower temperatures and high nutrients. It is seen that coral reefs that are found in deeper waters, have optimate shading, are subject to lower temperature changes and have adequate nutrients are the least susceptible to bleaching events. Evidence shows that reefs in shallow areas are exposed to higher temperatures, increased light and experience less ocean movement. [30]
    Coral reef in shallow water more likely to be exposed to damaging agents (ex. increased sunlight exposure)
  • Some research shows that coral reefs found in shallow environments have more resistance to warming events due to the extreme temperature shifts from a lack of water circulation. Although these reefs may have higher resistance to warming events, the lack of ocean circulation leads to the build up of toxic algae and photo inhibition.[30]
  • Developing technology that can increase water circulation and aid with adaptive processes can aid coral reefs with the acclimatization of warming ocean temperatures. Having a deep understanding of the relationships and processes of individual coral reef communities is crucial for future protection. If the correct technology and management techniques is used on a coral reef, that reef will become more resilient to future climate events.[30]

Economic Solutions

1) Reducing illegal fishing

  • Recently Chagos was selected by the Pew Ocean Legacy Program to become a no-take Marine Protected Area (MPA) within a 200m boundary. The Chagos Environmental Network stated that the designation of the Chagos Archipelago as a no-take MPA is the only path to guarantee the protection of this ecosystem.[26]  
  • Addressing social change issues and increasing economic wealth for local populations has the opportunity to reduce overfishing. In communities where fishing is the livelihood for many individuals. If fish stocks become depleted a positive feedback loop is created by fishers increasing their efforts as they have no alternative form of income. Reducing foreign fishing and focusing on the growth of the islands economy can help to reduce the positive feedback loop that is commonly seen in these areas.[4]
A fleet participating in illegal fishing in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

Reducing anthropogenic marine debris/pollution

  • Coral reef ecosystems are a hotspot for tourism, fishing and development due to their abundance in marine life and aesthetics. These factors allow coral reefs to be increasingly exposed to anthropogenic factors such as pollution and the consequences associated with them. Focusing on reducing factors such as unsustainable tourism and development can help to reduce the continued degradation of coral reefs.[4]

Environmental Hope

Unanticipated coral-dwelling decapod crustaceans[18]

  • Many species of cryptofauna (small and difficult to differentiate organisms) were found on dead colonies of branching corals. There are many species of cryptofauna that have some sort of relationship with live coral, as such it was assumed that they would also show vulnerabilities to coral mortality. However, out of 54 observed dead coral colonies, across five different atolls, 43 of them were found to contain species of these cryptofauna. Some species were recorded that typically are only seen on live species of coral!

Conclusion

Establishing the Chagos Archipelago as a no-take area was the first step to its restoration and protection. However, despite the creation of legislation and its isolation from human communities, illegal fishing and warming events continue to threaten the coral reefs.

Methods of conservation that have demonstrated indirect positive effects on coral reef health include the restoration of coconut plantations to more natural ecosystems, the eradication of invasives, and the subsequent rise in seabird population. Direct positive effects on coral reef health would ultimately be a decrease in emissions to reduce ocean acidification and warming, but this solution relies on global cooperation and restructuring of socioeconomic systems, which faces many barriers.

Steps towards this solution include British reconciliation for the immoral treatment of the Chagossians, further research of the Chagos Archipelago to understand how healthy and diverse coral reefs react and adapt to climate change, the development of mitigation technologies, the enforcement of no-take policies, and the reduction of pollution.

References

  1. ↑ Martin, Welz (November 5, 2022). "The Chagos Islands and international orders: human rights, rule of law, and foreign rule". International Relations. 38: 447–466. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/00471178221136015 Check |doi= value (help).
  2. ↑ Sheppard, C. R. C.; Ateweberhan, M.; Bowen, B. W.; Carr, P.; Chen, C. A.; Clubbe, C.; Craig, M. T.; Ebinghaus, R.; Eble, J. (December 9, 2014). "Reefs and islands of the Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean: why it is the world's largest no-take marine protected area". Aquatic Conservation. 22: 232–261. doi:10.1002/aqc.1248.
  3. ↑ Dunne, Richard P.; Polunin, Nicholas V. C.; Sand, Peter H.; Johnson, Magnus L. (2014). "The creation of the Chagos marine protected area: a fisheries perspective". Advanced Marine Biology. 69: 79–127. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-800214-8.00003-7.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Hughes, T. P., Barnes, M. L., Bellwood, D. R., Cinner, J. E., Cumming, G. S., Jackson, J. B. C., Kleypas, J., Leemput, I. A. van de, Lough, J. M., Morrison, T. H., Palumbi, S. R., Nes, E. H. van, Scheffer, M. (1 June 2017). "Coral reefs in the Anthropocene". Nature. 546 (7656): 82–90. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22901 Check |doi= value (help).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Heron, S. F., Maynard, J. A., Hooidonk, R. van, Eakin, C. M. (December 2016). "Warming Trends and Bleaching Stress of the World's Coral Reefs 1985–2012". Scientific Reports. 6 (1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38402 Check |doi= value (help).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Yao, Y., Wang, C. (1 December 2022). "Marine heatwaves and cold-spells in global coral reef zones". Progress in Oceanography. 209: 102920. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2022.102920 Check |doi= value (help).
  7. ↑ Sheppard, C., Harris, A., Sheppard, A. (30 June 2008). "Archipelago-wide coral recovery patterns since 1998 in the Chagos Archipelago, central Indian Ocean". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 362: 109–117. doi:https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07436 Check |doi= value (help).
  8. ↑ Woodhead, A. J., Hicks, C. C., Norström, A. V., Williams, G. J., Graham, N. A. J. (28 March 2019). Fox, C. (ed.). "Coral reef ecosystem services in the Anthropocene". Functional Ecology. 33 (6). doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13331 Check |doi= value (help).
  9. ↑ Fisher, R., O’Leary, Rebecca A., Low-Choy, S., Mengersen, K., Knowlton, N., Brainard, Russell E., Caley, M.  Julian (February 2015). "Species Richness on Coral Reefs and the Pursuit of Convergent Global Estimates". Current Biology. 25 (4): 500–505. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.022 Check |doi= value (help). no-break space character in |vauthors= at position 135 (help)
  10. ↑ Gillis, L., Bouma, T., Jones, C., Katwijk, M. van, Nagelkerken, I., Jeuken, C., Herman, P., Ziegler, A. (29 April 2014). "Potential for landscape-scale positive interactions among tropical marine ecosystems". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 503: 289–303. doi:https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10716 Check |doi= value (help).
  11. ↑ Graham, N. A. J., Nash, K. L. (26 November 2012). "The importance of structural complexity in coral reef ecosystems". Coral Reefs. 32 (2): 315–326. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-012-0984-y Check |doi= value (help).
  12. ↑ Ortiz, D. M., Tissot, B. N. (30 November 2012). "Evaluating ontogenetic patterns of habitat use by reef fish in relation to the effectiveness of marine protected areas in West Hawaii". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 432–433: 83–93. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2012.06.005 Check |doi= value (help). Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  13. ↑ Ferrario, F., Beck, M. W., Storlazzi, C. D., Micheli, F., Shepard, C. C., Airoldi, L. (13 May 2014). "The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation". Nature Communications. 5 (1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4794 Check |doi= value (help).
  14. ↑ Beck, M. W., Losada, I. J., Menéndez, P., Reguero, B. G., Díaz-Simal, P., Fernández, F. (12 June 2018). "The global flood protection savings provided by coral reefs". Nature Communications. 9 (1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04568-z Check |doi= value (help).
  15. ↑ Wild, C., Huettel, M., Klueter, A., Kremb, S. G., Rasheed, M. Y. M., Jørgensen, B. B. (March 2004). "Coral mucus functions as an energy carrier and particle trap in the reef ecosystem". Nature. 428 (6978): 66–70. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02344 Check |doi= value (help).
  16. ↑ Goeij, J. M. de, Oevelen, D. van, Vermeij, M. J. A., Osinga, R., Middelburg, J. J., Goeij, A. F. P. M. de, Admiraal, W. (3 October 2013). "Surviving in a Marine Desert: The Sponge Loop Retains Resources Within Coral Reefs". Science. 342 (6154): 108–110. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241981 Check |doi= value (help).
  17. ↑ Hicks, C. C., Stoeckl, N., Cinner, J. E., Robinson, J. (December 2014). "Fishery benefits and stakeholder priorities associated with a coral reef fishery and their implications for management". Environmental Science & Policy. 44: 258–270. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.04.016 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Head, C. E. I., Bonsall, M. B., Koldewey, H., Pratchett, M. S., Speight, M., Rogers, A. D. (21 May 2015). "High prevalence of obligate coral-dwelling decapods on dead corals in the Chagos Archipelago, central Indian Ocean". Coral Reefs. 34 (3): 905–915. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-015-1307-x Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  19. ↑ Moolna, A. (2024), Chagos Islands: how to ensure their coral reefs aren’t damaged as they return to Mauritius
  20. ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 Jeffery, L. R. (23 August 2014). "Ecological restoration in a cultural landscape: conservationist and Chagossian approaches to controlling the "coconut chaos" on the Chagos Archipelago". Human Ecology. 42 (6): 999–1006. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-014-9696-y Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 Healthy Islands, Healthy Reefs Text " Chagos Conservation Trust " ignored (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Benkwitt, C. E., D’Angelo, C., Dunn, R. E., Gunn, R. L., Healing, S., M. Loreto Mardones, Wiedenmann, J., Wilson, S. K., Nicholas A. J. Graham (8 December 2023). "Seabirds boost coral reef resilience". Science Advances. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 9 (49). doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adj0390 Check |doi= value (help).
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.9 Author, A. (30 December 2021). "Chagos in "Blue": . Fortress conservation, archipelagic network and militarized science". Cidades. Comunidades e Territórios. DINÂMIA’CET – IUL, Centre for Socioeconomic and Territorial Studies (43). doi:http://journals.openedition.org/cidades/4727 Check |doi= value (help). Retrieved 10 April 2025.
  24. ↑ Sheppard, C., Sheppard, A., Fenner, D. (May 2020). "Coral mass mortalities in the Chagos Archipelago over 40 years: Regional species and assemblage extinctions and indications of positive feedbacks". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 154: 111075. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111075 Check |doi= value (help).
  25. ↑ Williamson, M. J., Tebbs, E. J., Curnick, D. J., Ferretti, F., Carlisle, A. B., Chapple, T. K., Schallert, R. J., Tickler, D. M., Block, B. A., David (9 September 2024). "Environmental stress reduces shark residency to coral reefs". Communications Biology. Nature Publishing Group. 7 (1): 1–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-024-06707-3 Check |doi= value (help).
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Sheppard, C. R. C., Ateweberhan, M., Bowen, B. W., Carr, P., Chen, C. A., Clubbe, C., Craig, M. T., Ebinghaus, R., Eble, J., Fitzsimmons, N., Gaither, M. R., Gan, C-H., Gollock, M., Guzman, N., Graham, N. A. J., Harris, A., Jones, R., Keshavmurthy, S., Koldewey, H., Lundin, C. G. (17 January 2012). "Reefs and islands of the Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean: why it is the world's largest no-take marine protected area". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 22 (2): 232–261. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.1248 Check |doi= value (help).
  27. ↑ Hoare, V., Atchison Balmond, N., Hays, G. C., Jones, R., Koldewey, H., Laloë, J.-O. ., Levy, E., Llewellyn, F., Morrall, H., Esteban, N. (August 2022). "Spatial variation of plastic debris on important turtle nesting beaches of the remote Chagos Archipelago, Indian Ocean". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 181: 113868. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113868 Check |doi= value (help).
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Samoilys, M., Roche, R., Koldewey, H., Turner, J. (19 January 2018). Patterson, H. M. (ed.). "Patterns in reef fish assemblages: Insights from the Chagos Archipelago". PLOS ONE. 13 (1): e0191448. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191448 Check |doi= value (help).
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 McDevitt-Irwin, J. M., Chapuis, M., Carlson, R., Meekan, M., Palmisciano, M., Roche, R., Taylor, B. M., Tietjen, K. L., Tillman, C., Micheli, F. (2 September 2024). "Coral reef recovery in a remote and large marine protected area is resilient to cascading trophic interactions". Biological Conservation. Elsevier. 298: 110771. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2024.110771 Check |doi= value (help).
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Baker, A. C., Glynn, P. W., & Riegl, B. (2008). Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 80(4), 435-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.003
  31. ↑ Rockström, J. (2009). "Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity". Ecology and Society. 14 (2).
  32. ↑ Maneveldt, G. W., Wilby, D., Potgieter, M., Hendricks, M. G. J. (27 September 2006). "The Role of Encrusting Coralline Algae in the Diets of Selected Intertidal Herbivores". Journal of Applied Phycology. 18 (3–5): 619–627. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-006-9059-1 Check |doi= value (help).
  33. ↑ Lange, I. D., Perry, C. T., Stuhr, M. (24 March 2022). "Recovery trends of reef carbonate budgets at remote coral atolls 6 years post‐bleaching". Limnology and Oceanography. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.12066 Check |doi= value (help).
  34. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency (2024), Effects of Ocean and Coastal Acidification on Marine Life Text " US EPA " ignored (help)


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