Jump to content

Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Conservation Challenges and Opportunities in the Western Cape, South Africa

From UBC Wiki
Western Cape, South Africa

Introduction

Western Cape is a province in South Africa on the southern coast of the country. It contains the country's governing capital, Cape Town, and has an estimated 7 million inhabitants as of 2020[1]. The province is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the West side and the Southern Indian Ocean off its Southern coastline. Western Cape is also very topographically diverse boasting a set of parallel mountain ranges as well as a prominent inland escarpment[2]. Due to the presence of the diverse topography and proximity to the ocean, the province experiences a wide range of microclimates[3] enabling the region to be a hotspot for biodiversity[4]. Despite the region's extensive biodiversity, the field of conservation in the province is not considered a high priority and potential impacts of biodiversity loss are not widely recognized[4]. Climate change also poses a significant threat to the area through shrinkage in biome distribution, vegetation loss, and species extinction[4]. With many conflicting interest groups, Western Cape faces many serious challenges when it comes to the field of conservation that must be combatted to preserve the region's biodiversity and industry.

Biodiversity Hotspots

Western Cape is home to the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) which is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world[5]. This biodiversity generates a huge amount of revenue for the province through both tourism and natural resources like plant and marine harvests, totaling to over 10% of the regional Gross Geographic Product[5]. The region's plants specifically are incredibly biodiverse boasting over 8700 species, with 68% of them being endemic[5]. This includes the fynbos biome: an incredibly diverse, fire-prone shrubland[5]. Other notable 'hotspots' are the African Penguin colonies that reside on the western shore of the province[6] and the kelp forests occurring over 1,000km of Southern Africa's coastline[7]. In addition to the economic value that biodiversity provides, there is a significant existence value[5] along with cultural importance to local Indigenous nations[8]. Considering all these factors, Western Cape's biodiversity is one of its best assets and is critical to consider for its conservation.

African Penguin Colonies

African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) at Boulders Beach, Cape Town, SA

The African Penguin, Spheniscus demersus, is native to the Southern part of Africa and has prevalent colonies throughout Western Cape,[6] the most prevalent being the Robben Island, Stony Point, and Boulders Beach colonies located near Cape Town[9]. Having such a narrow range, the species is highly susceptible to population decline and risks extinction. As of 2020, the global population has declined 65% since 1989, which meets the threshold for an endangered species[10]. Factors that have contributed to their decline are cited as habitat alteration, egg exploitation, oil spills, predation by invasive species, entanglement in fishing gear, and loss of their food source due to overfishing[6]. While all of these factors play a role in the species decline, the main problem is the lack of small fish, known as forage fish, that are crucial in the diets of African Penguins due to depletion by overfishing[11]. Since African penguins inhabit only small regions of the globe, they have become a key attraction for visitors to Western Cape and play a key role in the tourism revenue of the area[9]. With Boulders Beach generating $2 million U.S. dollars in the year 2010 alone, much of this revenue has been invested in the conservation of the species as well as tourism based infrastructure[9]. Ecotourism proves to be a potential solution for conservation of the species along with bringing revenue, and attention to the biodiversity of Western Cape.

Kelp Forests

Gully Shark (Triakis megalopterus) in The Great African Kelp Forest

The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME), located off the western coast of Western Cape, houses abundant kelp forests that are known for their incredible underwater biodiversity[7]. The cool and nutrient rich waters along with the protection from the kelp create a perfect habitat for invertebrates, fish, and marine mammals[7]. This is driven by the Benguela current along with wind driven coastal upwelling that is expected to get more intense due to climate change allowing for expansion in the range of the kelp forests[12]. This region is home specifically to The Great African Sea Forest which is the only bamboo kelp (Ecklonia maxima) forest in the world and rivals the productivity of a tropical rainforest[12]. With an estimated 4.75 tonnes of standing kelp biomass per meter of coastline[12], kelp forests also contribute significantly to shoreline protection and carbon sequestration[7]. Because of its highly productive nature along with its carbon sequestration potential, kelp forests play a significant role in climate change regulation making them important for conservation purposes[12]. The kelp forests also provide ecosystem services for the surrounding people in Western Cape. With its use in creating fertilizers and its use for recreation and tourism, along with its carbon fixation and nutrient cycling properties, kelp is a significant force in the lives of people in Western Cape[12]. Its overall value is estimated to be around $434 million USD per year and while the range of the forest is expanding, the resources within the forest should be carefully managed so as to not disrupt the balance of the ecosystem and its values[7].

Fynbos Ecosystem

Fynbos Ecosystem

The Fynbos biome is a shrubland ecosystem primarily found in Western Cape, South Africa[13]. This specialized system is home to the Fynbos vegetation along with varieties of thicket and Succulent Karoo[13]. Fire is essential to the biome as it stimulates flora diversification and acts as a major nutrient release[13]. While fire-based disturbance is generally positive for this ecosystem, the increase in both the severity and frequency of fire could lead to problems for the sensitive Fynbos ecosystem. These fires have the potential to destroy the underground root system of Fynbos vegetation rendering them unable to regrow post-disturbance[13]. The dry, grassland nature of the ecosystem is incredibly flammable and the increase in fires and their severity can also spread to the forests bordering the Fynbos biome leading to wider spread destruction of areas that aren't adapted to intense fire[13]. The ecosystem is also highly important for ecosystem services. From providing forest products and timber, ecotourism opportunities, pollination of commercial fruit, and the mountain catchments providing most of the water for the region, the ecosystem is incredibly important to human life in the Western Cape region[5]. Protecting this incredibly biodiverse region is vital for the wellbeing of both humanity and the natural world in Western Cape.

Widespread Threats

Many factors are threatening the biodiversity and people of the Western Cape. As global warming worsens, weather conditions become more extreme and lead to mass flooding in the winter[14] and drought in the summer[15]. This heavily impacts the wellbeing of human populations, and leaves the environment vulnerable to secondary impacts, like the invasive species Pinus pinaster[16] and Eucalyptus camaldulensis[17]. Both species have catastrophic effects on local animals and plant life, by creating unfavorable conditions that are more prone to disturbance[18] and using valuable resources and nutrients. This variety of threats to the area displays the vulnerable position South Africa is and will continue to be in if alternative solutions are not explored.

Climate Change

One of the biggest impacts of climate change in the Western Cape has been coastal flooding caused by extreme winter weather events and sea level rise[14]. Cities such as Cape Town are already experiencing destruction of coastal properties and tourist destinations, erosion of beaches, and impacts on roads and railway lines[19]. Many more popular beaches and communities are at risk, with tidal graphs showing continual rising relative sea levels at Granger (2.18mm per year) and Simon's Bays (2.1mm per year)[19]. This, combined with the increased intensity and frequency of storms, means the frequency of floods has been higher during the past four decades compared to those previous[14]. The third-highest flood years were 2004, 2005, and 2006, where 13 floods were recorded each[14]. These record highs have been blamed partly on human-induced climate change from anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions[19]. Since 2010, these GHG emissions have grown exponentially, reaching 59 ± 6.6 GtCO2-eq in 2019 with an average annual growth in the last decade of 1.3%[20].

Conversely, during the dry summer season, the Western Cape region has suffered severely from prolonged drought-like conditions with little to no rainfall[21]. From 2015-2017, the region received below average rainfall which caused the worst water shortage since 1904, leading to government imposed water restrictions and agricultural disasters[15]. These conditions can also be attributed to anthropogenic factors, most predominantly rising global surface temperatures caused by increased industrialization and fossil fuel use, and will see a significant increase in occurrence (95% confidence interval 1.5-6) if current trajectory continues[21].

The combination of winter flooding and summer droughts has major socio-economic impacts on the region, leading to increased food insecurity and unemployment rates[15], impacted coastal tourism[19], and increased physical risk to those who live in the Western Cape[15].

Invasive Species

Pinus pinaster

Image shows a branch of Pinus pinaster.
Branch of Pinus pinaster.

A variety of different species have been found in the Western Cape of South Africa which threaten the rich biodiversity that is present. One example of an invasive species that threatens this environment is Pinus pinaster, also known as Cluster Pine[16]. This species specifically poses a threat to the amphibian species Arthroleptella rugosa, also known as the Rough Moss frog[16]. A large portion of the Rough Moss frog population is located on land covered by the Klein Swartberg Conservancy[18]. This land is vulnerable to fires, and Cluster Pines have provided more fuel load increasing the negative effects of this disturbance[18]. Cluster Pines have also directly affected Rough Moss frogs through altering conditions of their habitat. This includes Cluster Pines reducing soil moisture critical to frogs’ survival, altering habitat by erosion, and decreasing the local temperature by increasing shade which affects the frogs’ reproductive cycles[16]. A previous study has shown that an increased Cluster Pine population is attributed to a decrease in the population of Rough Moss frogs, which highlights the need to manage the invasive Cluster Pines for the future of this amphibian species[16].

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Image of a Eucalyptus camaldulensis tree.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis

A second invasive species, which is originally native to Australia, is Eucalyptus camaldulensis, also known as red river gum[17]. Red river gum is harshly affecting natural ecosystem processes and several native tree species to the Western Cape, such as Vachellia karroo, Olea europaea, Diospyros glabra, and the native annual Dimorphotheca pluvialis[17]. When red river gum litter was placed on native Western Cape soils, it resulted in a decrease of shoot and root growth for all the previously listed native species[17]. E. camaldulensis has been found to have toxins that negatively affect seedling development and germinating seeds[22]. Red river gum has also been found to make the soil water repellent, and adds to the competition of ecosystems which worsens the growing conditions for native species[23] . Other studies have found that solutions containing E. camaldulensis had an adverse impact on seed development[24]. These negative effects of red river gum showcase the need to remove the species and prioritize species that are resistant to E. camaldulensis[17].

Stakeholders

Indigenous Groups

In Western Cape, there are two primary Indigenous groups, the Khoekhoe and the San, known collectively as the Khoisan people[25]. Traditionally, the group lives a nomadic and pastoral lifestyle with an economy based on hunting, herding, and gathering[25]. Most of the original groups have dissipated due to war and colonialism or have settled and adopted a Europeanized lifestyle[25]. Other prominent groups in the province are the Xhosa-speaking people and the Sotho-speaking people, who reside in the Boland region[26]. These communities have existed in the region for centuries and continue their traditional practices in the present day. Indigenous groups represent a large stakeholder in conservation as they have been traditionally pushed out of native land and away from their traditional practices so they need to be considered when engaging in conservation discourse.

Zootherapy, which is the use of animals and animal parts in traditional medicine, is widespread and culturally important in indigenous African cultures, including specifically the Xhosa-speaking people (who make up the largest proportion of African ethnic groups in the province) and the Sotho-speaking people[8]. Traditional healers largely outnumber Western doctors, particularly in poor, rural areas, where more than 50% of the South African population resides[8]. It follows that a large portion of the population makes use of zootherapy - between 60 and 80% of the population have purchased traditional medicine or consulted a traditional healer[20]. Some of the species most in demand for traditional medicine are chacma baboon, Cape porcupine, monitor lizard spp., genet spp., puff adder, African rock python, vulture spp., and black-backed jackal, and especially leopard[8]. Therefore these species warrant concerns of sustainability. Conservation policies and interventions will always be incomplete until they balance conservation and sustainability priorities with the socio-economic role of zootherapy.

Farmers

Human-wildlife conflict can take the form of wildlife causing damage to crops, livestock, and farm infrastructure, and therefore loss of income[27]. Some examples include Blue Cranes, Egyptian geese, and leopards.

In the Western Cape Province, Blue Cranes and Egyptian geese are known to be a significant factor in crop loss[27]. Farmers employ methods such as gas cannons, shooting, or switching crops to those less favoured by Blue Cranes. Because of land change to agriculture, bird species are increasingly relying on farms for sustenance[27].

Additionally, Human-leopard conflict is especially prevalent in South Africa, and this species is already at risk of extinction in the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces[28]. Conflict arises when leopards are forced out of their land by human encroachment, but cannot move to a new territory due to the lack of protected areas, and must resort to hunting livestock[28]. This can lead to retaliatory killings by locals. In the given case, distrust and disagreement between farmers, NGOs, and government officials has prevented the implementation of effective strategies to both protect farmers’ interests and reduce illegal leopard killings, despite all parties sharing many similar views[28].

In both the above examples, farmers suggested solutions based on their own experience, and were amenable to conservation efforts that would protect the species and their own livelihoods[27][28]. Due to their presence on the frontlines of wildlife conservation in the Western Cape, farmers and their strategies in the face of human-wildlife conflict are a deciding factor in biodiversity conservation.

Current Solutions

There are a variety of conservation solutions taking place in the Western Cape in hopes of benefitting the surrounding environment and biodiversity. Within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), there were challenges with the collaboration of conservation institutions[13]. To solve this problem, the Cape Action for the People and the Environment (C.A.P.E.) initiative was established in 2001 to initiate biome-wide coordination and governance initiatives to align the goals and actions of both the public and private sphere[13]. This project was the first large scale conservation project in South Africa and funds many of the current conservation projects within South Africa, specifically relating to conserving the rich biodiversity of the region. Protected areas are also common within Western Cape with 27% of the CRF under some form of protection[13]. Other tactics are gaining traction such as the use of ecotourism to generate revenue for future conservation[5], climate change mitigation, and invasive species removal[29]. Overall, the Western Cape region has many systems in place for conservation of the area's biodiversity.

Biodiversity Preservation

One example of biodiversity preservation can be seen in a study that used artificial wetlands on agricultural landscapes to help prevent the destruction of bat habitat, protect bat populations, and manage insects that can be destructive to leaves[30]. Another example relates to amphibian conservation. A research study was able to conclude that controlled burns can positively impact the threatened Rough Moss frog population in the long term by managing the invasive Cluster Pines[31]. Another strategy looked at how the South African National Biodiversity Institute organized their conservation plans to prioritize amphibians, which resulted in increased general awareness, taxonomic knowledge of amphibians, and more research studies[32]. These examples show a variety of conservation approaches taking place in the Western cape, with emphasis on the removal of invasive species, improving conditions for native species, and increased conservation research. Species translocation is a strategy being conducted by moving portions or whole populations of certain species to new areas, to help protect them from climate change effects and extinction[33]. This conservation strategy is being done around the world, and it could be applied to species in the Western Cape to preserve the native species under climate change conditions.

Invasive species management

Another conservation strategy linked to biodiversity involves invasive species management. Invasive species management removes or decreases the amount of invasive species in environments, often with goals to improve conditions for native biodiversity and restore ecosystem services[34]. With invasive species seen in the Western Cape like Pinus pinaster [16] and Eucalyptus camaldulensis [17], invasive species management can be implemented to help control their population sizes and to benefit the native species[34]. Protecting the Western Cape’s native species from the effects of climate change and invasive species is a crucial step in the conservation of the ecosystem’s health. Another example is a program called Working for Water, which has a goal of removing invasive species on private land while simultaneously maintaining ecosystem services, and hiring people from marginalized sectors[29]. A study which also relates to removal of invasive species in the Western Cape was able to conclude that the removal of invasive Eucalyptus species can help improve soil conditions benefitting indigenous species growth[35]. These conservation strategy examples and research share a similar goal of looking towards supporting native plants and animal species.

Indigenous Conservation

Indigenous Group in South Africa

The implementation of traditional Indigenous conservation methods is already occurring across South Africa[36], and is useful for the repair of both local cultures and environments in the Southern Cape. The main conservation practices in South Africa revolve around water harvesting and agriculture. Some methods used include grass strips grown between fields to increase infiltration, rock packs around maize plants to intercept runoff and increase infiltration, and rocks packed under crop soil to help with drainage[36]. Another example is Gelsha, which is the South African practice of water harvesting and soil conservation. It involves the tilling of soil immediately after harvest, with the intention of ensuring that any rain, dew or frost infiltrates the soil for the next crop rather than evaporating or running off[36]. Rainwater harvesting is conducted in a variety of ways, including rooftop rainwater harvesting, road runoff collection, collection from a slope, infield rainwater harvesting, and trench bed gardening[37] The purposes range from domestic use to crop and livestock production, meaning the practice is essential for many communities[37]. More work needs to be done in recognizing and using these methods at larger scales as well as empowering local communities to participate in further development and governance[37].

Potential Solutions

There are a variety of conservation strategies being practiced and studied around the world that hold potential to benefit the Western Cape. While the region already has many strategies in place, there are more than can be implemented. For example, there is room for expansion of the ecotourism and archaeotourism sectors that could raise funds for conservation practices. Additionally, there are new tactics being implemented to further expand biodiversity conservation practices.

Community Based Conservation

Community Based Conservation (CBC) emphasizes that the individuals that are affected by conservation choices should have a say in these practices[38]. This is considered a promising solution to environmental degradation as it is believed that local people will be more responsive to problems directly impacting their communities. Recently, this practice has worked to include Indigenous communities further expanding its benefits to the local communities. Studies have shown that over 80% of CBC projects had some positive impact for both environmental and human wellbeing outcomes[39]. This high rate of success not only for conservation but also for societal outcomes, highlights its possible benefits for use in the Western Cape region. In South Carolina, a study was done to best see how carbon and restoration projects can be done to expand ecosystem services[40]. This study can act as a model for future conservation efforts, like in the Western Cape, to optimize ecosystem services for the people and the environment[40].

Sustainable Tourism

Tourism in Western Cape

Ecotourism is defined as traveling to a natural area to admire scenery, wildlife, and culture[41]. While this is already being used within Western Cape, its use could be widely expanded to ensure environmental conservation and economic benefits for the community[41]. One example of this is the Boulder's Beach African Penguin Colony. The revenue from tourism of the area is being used for conservation of other colonies of penguins and their habitats[9]. Another conservation strategy that affects the community is sustainable archaeotourism, which focuses on using cultural heritage as a way of tourism[42]. This is currently seen in the Western Cape as tourism for rock art, fish traps, and caves[42]. Archaeotourism is currently being done in the Western Cape, and with further involvement of local communities it can become more sustainable[42].

Conclusion

In summary, the Western Cape is highly biodiverse with many unique ecosystems and habitats, such as the African penguin colonies, kelp forests, and the fynbos ecosystem, which makes this region very valuable locally and globally[5][6][12][13].  Currently, invasive species and more extreme and variable weather conditions due to climate change put these ecosystems at risk[14][15][16][17][19]. The primary stakeholders are Indigenous groups, specifically the Khoekhoe, San, Xhosa-speaking, and Sotho-speaking people, individuals who rely on or practice zootherapy, and farmers[8][25][26][27][28]. These stakeholders would impact and be impacted by conservation initiatives, and so must be considered and included in the process of conservation project design and implementation. Several conservation strategies are already in effect in the Western Cape, such as biodiversity preservation, invasive species management, and traditional Indigenous conservation methods[13][29][30][31][35][36]. Some additional solutions that could also be implemented or expanded on include community-based conservation and sustainable tourism[38][39][41][42].

References

  1. ↑ Statistics South Africa, 2020. Mid- year population estimates. Available: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022020.pdf
  2. ↑ McCarthy, T., Rubridge, B. (2005). The Story of Earth and Life. pp. 188–195, 262–266. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
  3. ↑ Tyson, P.D., Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2000) The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa. pp. 221–223. Oxford University Press, Cape Town
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Turpie, Jane K. (September 2003). "The existence value of biodiversity in South Africa: how interest, experience, knowledge, income and perceived level of threat influence local willingness to pay". Ecological Economics. 46(2): 199–216 – via Science Direct.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Turpie, Jane K.; Heydenrych, Barry J.; Lamberth, Stephen J. (2001). "Economic value of terrestrial and marine biodiversity in the Cape Floristic Region: implications for defining effective and socially optimal conservation strategies". Biological Conservation. 112: 233–251 – via Science Direct.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Underhill, LG; Crawford, RJM; Wolfaardt, AC; Whittington, PA; Dyer, BM; Leshoro, TM; Ruthenberg, M; Upfold, L; Visagie, J (2006). "Regionally coherent trends in colonies of African penguins Spheniscus demersus in the Western Cape, South Africa, 1987–2005". African Journal of Marine Science. 28(3–4): 697–704 – via Taylor & Francis.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Mehta, Akshata; Wynberg, Rachel; Ramcharan-Kotze, Chantal; Smit, Albertus J. (2023). "Exploring local perceptions around the value of marine biodiversity: the case of kelp in the Western Cape, South Africa". Ecosystems and People. 19 – via Taylor & Francis.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Nieman, Wilhelm A.; Leslie, Alison J.; Wilkenson, Anita (2019). "Traditional medicinal animal use by Xhosa and Sotho communities in the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 15 – via National Library of Medicine.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Lewis, SEF; Turpie, JK; Ryan, PG (Mar 2012). "Are African penguins worth saving? The ecotourism value of the Boulders Beach colony". African Journal of Marine Science. 34: 497–504 – via Taylor & Francis.
  10. ↑ Sherley, Richard B.; Crawford, Robert J M.; de Blocq, Andrew D.; Dyer, Bruce M.; Geldenhuys, Deon; Hagen, Christina; Kemper, Jessica; Makhado, Azwianewi B.; Pichegru, Lorien (Jul 9, 2020). "The conservation status and population decline of the African penguin deconstructed in space and time". Ecol Evol. 10(15): 8506–8516 – via National Library of Medicine.
  11. ↑ Sydeman, William J.; Thompson, Sarah Ann; Anker-Nilssen, Tycho; Arimitsu, Mayumi; Bennison, Ashley; Bertrand, Sophie; Boersch-Supan, Philipp; Boyd, Charlotte; Bransome, Nicole C. (June 2017). "Best practices for assessing forage fish fisheries-seabird resource competition". Fisheries Research. 194: 209–221 – via ScienceDirect.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Prew, Zara; Reggy, Maggie; Mehta, Akshata; Clifford Dyer, David (2024). "The African seaforest: a review". Botanica Mariana. 65 (7) – via ResearchGate.
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 Allsopp, Nicky; Colville, Jonathan F.; Anthony, Verboom (2014). "Fynbos: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation of a Megadiverse Region". Oxford University Press – via Oxford University Press.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Dube, Kaitano (25 June 2021). "Flooding trends and their impacts on coastal communities of Western Cape Province, South Africa". GeoJournal. 87: 453–468 – via Springer Nature Link.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Botai, Christina (10 November 2017). "Drought Characteristics over the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Water. 9 – via MDPI.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Angus, O.; Turner, A. A.; Measey, J. (24 January 2023). "In a rough spot: Declines in Arthroleptella rugosa calling densities are explained by invasive pine trees". Austral Ecology. 48 (3): 498–512 – via Wiley Online Library.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Rumania, S.; Gaertner, M.; Esler, K.J.; Richardson, D. M (3 October 2014). "Allelopathic effects of invasive Eucalyptus camaldulensis on germination and early growth of four native species in the Western Cape, South Africa". Southern Forests: A Journal of Forest Science. 77 (2): 91–105 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Measey, J.; Turner, A.; Conradie, W.; Mokhatla, M.; Rebelo, A.; du Preez, L.; Tarrant, J. (25 September 2019). "Has strategic planning made a difference to amphibian conservation research in South Africa?". Bothalia. 49 (1): 1–13 – via ProQuest.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Dube, Kaitano (March 2021). "Rising sea level and its implications on coastal tourism development in Cape Town, South Africa". Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism. 33 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  20. ↑ "Chapter 2: Emissions trends and drivers". Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Otto, Friederike (29 November 2018). "Anthropogenic influence on the drivers of the Western Cape drought 2015–2017". Environmental Research Letters. 13 – via IOP Science.
  22. ↑ del Moral, R.; Muller, C.H. (January 1970). "The Allelopathic Effects of Eucalyptus camaldulensis". The American Midland Naturalist. 83 (1): 254–282 – via JSTOR.
  23. ↑ Ruwanza, S.; Gaertner, M.; Richardson, D.M.; Esler, K.J. (June 2013). "Soil water repellency in riparian systems invaded by Eucalyptus camaldulensis: A restoration perspective from the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Geoderma. 200-201: 9–17 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  24. ↑ Andualem, A.M.; Aragaw, M. W.; Molla, A. E.; Tarekegn, Z.G.; Kassa, G.M. (28 November 2024). "Allelopathic effects of leaf extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. on morphological, physiological, and yield traits of Ethiopian wheat (Triticum durum L.) cultivars". BMC Plant Biology. 24 (1138): 1–16 – via National Library of Medicine.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica (2024). "Khoekhoe". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Nieman, Wilhelm A.; Leslie, Alison J.; Wilkenson, Anita (2019). "Traditional medicinal animal use by Xhosa and Sotho communities in the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 15 – via National Library of Medicine.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 van Velden, Julia L.; Smith, Tanya; Ryan, Peter G. (2016). "Cranes and Crops: Investigating Farmer Tolerances toward Crop Damage by Threatened Blue Cranes (Anthropoides paradiseus) in the Western Cape, South Africa". Environmental Management. 58: 972–983 – via ProQuest.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Viollaz, Julie S.; Thompson, Sara T.; Petrossian, Gohar A. (2021). "When Human–Wildlife Conflict Turns Deadly: Comparing the Situational Factors That Drive Retaliatory Leopard Killings in South Africa". Animals : an open access journal from MDPI. 11 – via National Library of Medicine.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Urgenson, L.S.; Prozesky, H.E.; Esler, K.J. (2013). "Stakeholder Perceptions of an Ecosystem Services Approach to Clearing Invasive Alien Plants on Private Land". Ecology and Society. 18 (1): 26 – via Ecology and Society.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Sirami, C.; Jacobs, D.S.; Cumming, G.S. (2013). "Artificial wetlands and surrounding habitats provide important foraging habitat for bats in agricultural landscapes in the Western Cape, South Africa". Biological Conservation. 164: 30–38 – via Science Direct.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Angus, O.; Turner, A. A.; Measey, J. (24 January 2023). "In a rough spot: Declines in Arthroleptella rugosa calling densities are explained by invasive pine trees". Austral Ecology. 48 (3): 498–512 – via Wiley Online Library.
  32. ↑ Measey, J.; Turner, A.; Conradie, W.; Mokhatla, M.; Rebelo, A.; du Preez, L.; Tarrant, J. (2019). "Has strategic planning made a difference to amphibian conservation research in South Africa?". Bothalia. 49 (1): 1–13 – via AOSIS.
  33. ↑ Butt, N.; Chauvenet, A.L.M.; Adams, V.M.; Beger, M.; Gallagher, R.V.; Shanahan, D.F.; Ward, M.; Watson, J.E.M.; Possingham, H.P. (2021). "Importance of species translocations under rapid climate change". Conservation Biology. 35 (3): 775–783 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Prior, K.M.; Adams, D.C.; Klepzig, K.D.; Hulcr, J. (2018). "When does invasive species removal lead to ecological recovery? Implications for management success". Biological Invasions. 20 (2): 267–283 – via Springer Nature Link.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Ruwanza, S.; Gaertner, M.; Richardson, D.M.; Esler, K.J. (June 2013). "Soil water repellency in riparian systems invaded by Eucalyptus camaldulensis: A restoration perspective from the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Geoderma. 200-201: 9–17 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Denison, J.A; Wotshela, L. (09 October 2012). "AN OVERVIEW OF INDIGENOUS, INDIGENISED AND CONTEMPORARY WATER HARVESTING AND CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN SOUTH AFRICA". Irrigation and Drainage. 61: 7–23 – via Wiley Online Library. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Garutsa, Tendayi C. (July 2024). "Application of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Water Conservation and Management: The Case of Khambashe Eastern Cape South Africa". Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. 3.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Berdej, S., Armitage, D., & Charles, A. (2015). Governance and community conservation. Community Conservation Research Network. https://www.communityconservation.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Governance-and-Community-Conservation-Guidebook.pdf
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Fariss, Brandon; DeMello, Nicole; Powlen, Katheryn A; Latimer, Christopher E; Masuda, Yuta; Kennedy, Christina M. (2022). "Catalyzing success in community-based conservation". Conservation Biology. 37(1) – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Clay, L.; Motallebi, M.; O’Halloran, T.L. (2024). "Quantifying Ecosystem Services to Maximize Co-Benefits Under Market-Based Conservation Solutions in the Edisto River Basin, South Carolina". Forests. 15 (10): 1–16 – via MDPI.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Chiutsi, Simon; Mukoroverwa, Memory; Karigambe, Pauline; Mudzengi, Boycen Kumira (2011). "The theory and practice of ecotourism in Southern Africa". Journal of Hospitality, Management, and Tourism. 2: 14–21 – via Academic Journals.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Wurz, S.; van der Merwe, J.H. (2005). "Gauging Site Sensitivity for Sustainable Archaeotourism in the Western Cape Province of South Africa". The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 60 (181): 10–19 – via JSTOR.


This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Conservation_Challenges_and_Opportunities_in_the_Western_Cape,_South_Africa&oldid=860037"