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Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Community-driven mangrove Protection and Restoration in Africa.

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Introduction

Mangrove Forest in Lamu Island, Kenya [1].

Africa is home to approximately 20% of global mangroves, with most on the West Coast [2]. Mangrove ecosystems support coastal communities by providing essential food, income, and ecological stability through their diverse ecosystem services. Tidal swamps are where mangroves are typically found, and they play a vital role in maintaining Africa's coastal biodiversity. Mangroves provide habitat to fish, crustaceans, birds, and marine mammals and store significantly more carbon per hectare than most tropical forests [3].

Even with significant ecological and social importance, the mangroves of Africa remain vulnerable to threats of deforestation, coastal development, climate change, and aquaculture [4]. Historically misunderstood by colonial powers, mangroves were often drained and cleared, leading to habitat losses that continue under the economic pressures of the 21st century [5].

In response to the immense challenges facing mangroves, community-driven conservation efforts have increased across Africa as a powerful tool in combatting forest degradation, while also supporting the livelihoods of local communities. Understanding the historical context of mangroves and the pressures they face today reveals how community-driven conservation has become essential to their protection

Background

Historical

Pre-colonial Use

Women from the village of Soucouta, Senegal, participate in the traditional gathering of mangrove oysters [6].

The mangroves of Africa, all share a rich history of weaving coastal region traditional ecological knowledge with economic endeavours that predate European arrivals. Coastal communities of west Africa have cultivated rice between mangrove trees for the past millennium [7]. Arabic, Pre-Portuguese, texts document east African coastal communities participating in trade with the Arabian Peninsula through the crafting and selling of poles fashioned from mangrove trees. These polls were an inexpensive and termite-resistant alternative to costly stone arches used in urban development by architects of the Arabian Peninsula [8].

Deriving traditional medicine from mangrove trees were common in coastal communities of Africa as well as mangrove use in ritual practices and as a source of fibre and wood. Generations of coastal African communities developed traditional ecological knowledge of mangroves through the observation of tidal flows and soil conditions. Traditional ecological knowledge sustained coastal livelihoods without the degradation of forest ecosystems [5]. Traditional ecological knowledge shapes how local communities interact with mangrove ecosystems, as observed in the Sine-Saloum region of Senegal, where women of the Soucouta village practice traditional harvesting of oysters from mangrove roots [6]. This practice exemplifies the deep ecological knowledge and continued reliance on mangrove provisioning services.

Colonial Fear of Mangroves

European colonizers of the late 19th century failed to recognize the ecological value of mangrove ecosystems, and instead frequently associated mangroves with disease. Influence of the common place miasma theory lead colonizers to view mangrove swamps as riddled with pathogens and plagued by decay. The foul odours emitted from decomposing organic matter within mangrove roots systems, while natural, was misinterpreted as being deadly [9]. However, local communities continued to rely on mangroves for their ecosystem services, trusting in the deep roots of traditional ecological knowledge. The opposing views on mangroves between colonizers and locals, would shape the legacy of mangrove management well into the 21st century [9].

Historical Gaps in Scientific Based Management

Even with the long-standing relationships between the coastal communities of Africa and mangrove ecosystems, the early environmental science of the region often failed to capture the complex relationship. Up until about the early 2000s most research on mangrove forests in Africa, with strictly descriptive and lacked the quantitative data necessary for long-term conservation plans [2]. In the absence of baseline data, decades of policy inaction thrived, even as traditional ecological knowledge continued to sustain mangrove use.

Threats

Climate Change and Rising Sea Levels

As climate change continues the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems worldwide is threatened, particularly through rise in sea levels. Because mangroves are a semi-aquatic coastal plant, they are extremely susceptible to sea level rises. With global sea levels projected to rise between 18 and 59 cm by 2100, mangroves are vulnerable to submersion, suffocation and erosion [4]. On the coast of East Africa, the Rufiji Delta serves as Rich ecosystem for migratory birds, including the curlew sandpiper, roseate tern, little stint, and Caspian tern [4]. A disturbance to this important ecosystem would have a rippling effect across both terrestrial and marine biodiversity alike.

Deforestation and Resource Extraction

The high demand for the immense provisioning services provided by mangrove ecosystems causes extensive deforestation across Africa. The wood from mangrove trees is highly valued for its termite resistance in construction and is also commonly harvested for fuel, charcoal, and fish smoking [4]. Mangrove bark is rich in Tannins, and is used in traditional medicine, while other parts of the harvested tree act as a natural mosquito repellent [4]. The area of land covered by mangroves has already decreased by 20-30% in Africa due to resource extraction and land use changes, especially in densely populated coastal regions [2].

Aquaculture and Shrimp Farming

The land-use change of mangrove forests into aquaculture, particularly shrimp farming, has become a leading driver of deforestation in Africa. To build large shrimp ponds agriculturalists often clear intact mangroves stands and disrupt natural tidal ecosystems [2]. The removal of mangroves, oxygen regulators, reduce oxygen levels in the surrounding waters, as well as introduce effluents that degrade the quality of water and biodiversity [2].


Ecological and Social Significance

Geographic Distribution and Coverage

Mangroves span the coasts of Africa, covering over 3.2 million hectares and accounting for 20% of the world's mangroves [2]. These ecosystems are unevenly distributed, with 74% located along the west coast across 19 countries and 26% along the east coast spanning 15 countries [2]. Between 1996 and 2020, global mangrove loss totalled 5,245 km² (3.5% of the 1996 global mangrove area), with Africa losing 647.6 km² (2.15% of its 1996 mangrove area) during the same period [10]. However, these figures only reflect direct loss and do not capture the full extent of mangrove ecosystem degradation, which has severe consequences for local communities and biodiversity [11]. The geographic scope of Africa’s mangroves highlights their extensive distribution and ecological importance.

Ecological Role and Importance

Mangroves are coastal ecosystems in intertidal zones, from mean sea level to the highest spring tide. Globally, there are approximately 70 species of mangroves [12]. These ecosystems uniquely connect terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments, creating vital habitats for diverse flora and fauna. Africa's largest mangrove forest is located in the Niger Delta, covering over 500,000 hectares and ranking as the third-largest mangrove forest globally [13]. Mangroves serve as homes for birds, marine creatures, reptiles, and other species. Their intricate root systems form a web that offers essential spaces for mating, refuge, and nurseries.

Mangroves contribute significantly to highly productive food webs that support all trophic levels. The decomposition of mangrove leaves provides nutrients for algae and invertebrates, sustaining higher trophic levels such as fish and birds [11]. Approximately 75% of commercially caught fish can be traced back to mangrove ecosystems, highlighting their importance for fisheries and food security [14]. The biodiversity value of mangroves is exemplified in Baly Bay, Madagascar, which hosts five of nine threatened Malagasy waterbird species [11]. Mangroves are key players of biodiversity conservation through supporting habitats, food webs, flora, and fauna.

Ecosystem Services

Mangroves provide vital ecosystem services essential for sustaining human life and maintaining ecological balance. Provisioning services include tangible products obtained from mangrove ecosystems. Mangroves supply habitats for fish and invertebrates, critical food sources for humans and wildlife [15]. Local communities rely on these species for nutrition, while the fisheries industry benefits significantly from the biodiversity supported by mangroves. Additionally, mangrove wood is highly valued for its durability and is widely used for construction, fuel, and handicrafts [15]. Regulating services refers to the benefits people gain from ecosystem processes. Mangroves serve as carbon sinks, capturing and storing carbon dioxide. Carbon sequestration mitigates climate change by preventing greenhouse gases from entering the atmosphere. The carbon storage of mangroves is greater than that of rainforests and seagrasses, demonstrating its immense value [16]. Mangroves' vast root systems allow them to capture and store carbon underground, prolonging the sequestration with a slower decay of organic matter [16]. Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems are named cultural benefits. Ecotourism and recreation are popular in mangrove forests. Guided kayak and bird-watching tours generate income. They also provide a place for education and research on biodiversity and climate resilience. Supporting services facilitate the production of all other ecosystem services. Nutrient cycling refers to the process of nutrients moving through components of an ecosystem, including the soil, water, plants, and atmosphere, and essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur for sustaining life are made available. Root bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a plant-usable form [17]. Microbial and enzymes from the mangrove help release phosphorus from organic matter to plants [17]. The roots trap nutrient sediments, enriching the soil for plant growth [17]. Mangroves are indispensable organisms that provide a wide range of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services.

Current Remedial Actions

Current remedial actions towards community-based mangrove restoration are prevalent in areas where community members' well-being is ensured. This means as community well-being increases, participation in management increases as well. Moreover, when communities have fewer opportunities for income, local members often practice more unsustainable mangrove use. This leads many initiatives, across the globe, to focus on community members and their well-being prior to the implementation of any mangrove management strategies. Different countries practice community-based mangrove management in different ways, while some prefer to be state/government led, others are controlled by international donor agencies and non-profit organizations. There are also some countries that utilize both approaches where the government and NGOs (non-profit organizations and other non-government organizations) work together to organize community action. For example, the government leads community-based mangrove management in Kenya while in Tanzania both government and NGOs play a large role. Research shows that countries where community-based mangrove management is initiated by NGOs tend to be more successful than initiatives solely implemented by governments. However, some initiatives were also successful when they were started mainly by NGOs but later supported by the local government. While there have been some efforts towards community-based mangrove management many countries like Kenya, Egypt, Gabon, Congo and Madagascar “have huge potential for CBMM [community-based mangrove management] but they are yet to follow the right path of implementation” [18]. One issue that leads to the lack of implementation tends to be the lack of research and information, particularly information on actual uses of mangroves at the local level. Different communities utilize mangroves for different resources and African communities once utilized mangroves for fuelwood however now only the most remote and marginal parts of the coastal communities use mangrove wood as fuel. Now Mangroves are often used for fishing, a monetizable resource. While there are many known resources within mangroves, “only economically viable uses with respect to local markets are recognized as popular utilization options” [18]. The lack of information of community uses of mangroves as well as the absence of sustainable resource utilization strategies leads to the over utilization of mangroves.

Across parts of Africa and other parts of the world there are currently many projects and remedial actions that address the issue of mangrove degradation and deforestation. For example, the Nhangu community located in Mozambique has a mangrove restoration and protection initiative that was started by the government in order to combat the issue of mangrove loss, and the resulting effects this has on the local community [19]. The initiative started off around the 1990s, and was mostly performed by the Ministry of Agriculture, but later on, the government started to involve and collaborate with the local community in Nhangu to involve the people affected by the issue [19]. The action of the government involving the community in the process allows for more input and more volume of quality ideas for solutions and helps to find a medium point in which there can be a sustainable solution that works well for a community without causing harm. The planting of new mangrove trees was run by the local community and was assisted by the Provincial Directorate of Land, Environmental and Rural Development, and people’s knowledge of the area helped to determine which species should be planted catered to this specific site [19]. Many parts of the community were involved including NGOs, schools and volunteers [19]. The group of people in charge of planting mangroves was later adapted into an organization called the Natural Resource Management Association [19]

A small community-led project located in a small community in Koh Sralao, Cambodia involves a natural resource management committee formed by the community in an effort to protect the mangrove forests of the area [19]. This project is quite similar to the initiative in the Nhangu community in Mozambique, with a few additions, and could be modelled in more parts of Africa that are affected by the loss of mangroves. This initiative involved creating policies against the extraction of natural resources from mangrove forests, and “promoting environmental education and mangrove planting” [19]. The natural resource management committee also managed to create “a reserve area and imposed limits of the mesh size in swimming crab fishing to allow crabs to grow” [20][19].

The Path Forward

Even with all of the current projects and actions taken towards community-based solutions, there are still more actions that are necessary to be taken in order to make a meaningful impact towards protection and restoration of mangroves in Africa.

Educational / Social

Going to school is all about team building, bringing people together and helping each other learn to work together as a community. One potential solution might be to include learning about community-based protection and conservation of mangroves in African educational systems. This might allow students to start learning about the importance of caring for, managing and conserving mangroves from a young age, while simultaneously reinforcing the importance of coming together and working as a community. This is significant because as more and more mangroves are harmed due to climate change and deforestation, finding solutions to this issue is likely to fall on younger generations of people in Africa.

This may create opportunities for schools to start mangrove restoration and conservation projects that involve students working together with members of local communities to learn how to maintain and protect mangroves. These projects could involve objectives such as students helping to spread information about the importance of protecting mangroves and to determine ways to work with each other toward the common goal.

The implementation of learning about community-based mangrove protection and conservation in the educational systems may also add the potential of creating new job opportunities for communities in parts of Africa. In order for there to be quality knowledge about community-based mangrove conservation being taught in the education systems, there needs to be people that are experts on the topic teaching this information. This could potentially create an opening for jobs related to the field of either teaching students directly or educating the teachers that currently teach the students.

Restoration Through Native Tree Planting

One of the most effective and community-centered solutions to the crisis of mangrove degradation and deforestation is restoration through native replanting. This approach focuses on replanting mangrove species that are indigenous to the area, ensuring ecological compatibility and long-term sustainability. It combines traditional ecological knowledge with scientific best practices, offering a restoration strategy that is both environmentally sound and socially inclusive.

Why Native Replanting Works

Native mangrove replanting is more than just planting trees, it's about restoring entire ecosystems. By using species that are already adapted to the local climate, tidal patterns, and soil salinity, communities can significantly improve the survival rate of planted mangroves [21]. Unlike exotic or non-native species, local mangroves integrate seamlessly into existing ecosystems and support native biodiversity, including fish, crustaceans, birds, and insects [21].

Moreover, native species are more resilient to local pests, diseases, and environmental conditions. This resilience reduces maintenance needs and increases the likelihood of long-term success. In many African countries, such as Kenya, Mozambique, and Senegal, projects that have prioritized native species have demonstrated higher growth rates, better ecological recovery, and stronger community engagement compared to those using non-native species or commercial plantations.

Cost-Effective and Scalable

Native replanting can be low-cost and community-driven, making it a particularly viable option in low-resource settings. Unlike high-tech interventions, native replanting doesn’t require extensive equipment or imported seedlings. Many coastal communities already possess the knowledge to identify, collect, and nurture mangrove propagules.

Training local people in nursery management and restoration techniques creates local employment opportunities while building long-term stewardship of the ecosystem. In places like the Rufiji Delta in Tanzania or the Niger Delta in Nigeria, community-based nurseries have become hubs of education and empowerment, especially for women and youth [22].

Once community members are trained, the model can be replicated in other villages and regions with similar environmental conditions. This scalability is essential for large-scale mangrove restoration, particularly in regions facing widespread deforestation or climate-related damage.

Ecological and Climate Benefits

Restoring mangroves using native species significantly improves ecosystem function. Replanted mangrove forests quickly begin to trap sediment, stabilize shorelines, and reduce the impact of coastal flooding. Over time, they also enhance water quality by filtering pollutants and provide breeding grounds for commercially important fish species, supporting local fisheries [21].

From a climate perspective, mangroves are among the most carbon-rich forests in the world. Native replanting enables these ecosystems to return to their full carbon sequestration potential, contributing to both mitigation and adaptation goals under international climate agreements.

This makes native replanting not only an ecological solution but also a climate-smart investment particularly relevant for African nations looking to meet their climate targets through nature-based solutions.

Social and Cultural Impact

One of the most compelling reasons to invest in native replanting is its ability to bring communities together around a shared environmental goal. Restoration projects can become cultural events, integrating local traditions, songs, and stories into planting days. This deepens the community’s emotional and cultural connection to the mangroves, fostering a sense of ownership and pride. When restoration is led by the community and rooted in local knowledge, it’s more likely to be respected, maintained, and protected as well.

By choosing native replanting, African communities aren’t just planting trees—they’re planting the seeds of resilience, both ecological and social. It’s a solution that works with nature, not against it, and stands as one of the most promising paths toward a healthier, more sustainable coastal future.

Conclusion

Mangroves are essential to ecological integrity and human well-being in Africa. Mangroves are a unique biodiversity haven, acting as fish nurseries and carbon sequesters. Deforestation, climate change, aquaculture, and resource extraction threaten mangrove abundance and distribution. Community-led restoration and protection efforts show success and are necessary for the future, as seen through the acknowledgement of long-standing traditional ecological knowledge and the involvement of local communities. For long-term engagement, it is important to integrate mangrove conservation into education systems and job creation. Native tree planting proves to be an effective solution to mangrove degradation and deforestation. Continued support, research, and collaboration are necessary to ensure the future of African mangroves.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page.

For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but[1] please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lamu_Mangrove_Forest.jpg
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Naidoo, G. The Mangroves of Africa: A Review. *Marine Pollution Bulletin* vol. 190, 2023, article 114859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114859
  3. ↑ Siikamäki, J., Sanchirico, J. N., & Jardine, S. L. Global Economic Potential for Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Mangrove Loss. *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences* vol. 109, no. 36, 2012, pp. 14369–14374. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200519109
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Martin, E. East African Mangroves. *One Earth* 15 Dec. 2021. https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/east-african-mangroves/
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Friess, D. Ecosystem Services and Disservices of Mangrove Forests: Insights from Historical Colonial Observations. *Forests* vol. 7, no. 9, 2016, article 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7090183
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cueilleuses_traditionnelles_d%27Hu%C3%AEtres_de_mangrove,_r%C3%A9gion_du_Sine_Saloum,_femmes_du_village_de_Soucouta,_S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal.jpg
  7. ↑ Fields-Black, E. L. Untangling the Many Roots of West African Mangrove Rice Farming: Rice Technology in the Rio Nunez Region, Earliest Times to c. 1800. *Journal of African History* vol. 48, no. 1, 2008, pp. 1–21.
  8. ↑ Curtin, P. D. African Enterprise in the Mangrove Trade: The Case of Lamu. *African Economic History* no. 10, 1981, pp. 23–33.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Queensland Government. Mangrove Odours on Redlands Coast. *Queensland Health Fact Sheet* 2019. Available at: https://www.redland.qld.gov.au/downloads/file/3312/mangrove_odours_on_redlands_coast_fact_sheet
  10. ↑ Bunting, Pete (2022). "Global Mangrove Extent Change 1996-2020: Global Mangrove Watch Version 3.0". Remote Sensing. 14.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bojang, F. (2009). "The relevance of mangrove forests to African fisheries, wildlife and water resources". Nature & Faune. 24.
  12. ↑ Giri, C. (January 2011). "Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 20: 154–159 – via JSTOR.
  13. ↑ Martin, Emma; Burgess, Neil. "Central African Mangroves". One Earth. Retrieved April 11, 2025.
  14. ↑ "Why Mangroves Matter". American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved April 11, 2025.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Mangrove Management". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved April 11, 2025.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Dabalà, A.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Dunn, D.; Everett, J.; Lovelock, C.; Hanson, J.; Buenafe, K.; Neubert, S.; Richardson, A. (September 21 2023). "Priority areas to protect mangroves and maximise ecosystem services". Nature Communications. 14. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Alongi, Daniel (April 22 2021). "Macro- and Micronutrient Cycling and Crucial Linkages to Geochemical Processes in Mangrove Ecosystems". Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 9. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Datta, D., Chattopadhyay, R. N., & Guha, P. (2012). Community based mangrove management: A review on status and sustainability. Journal of Environmental Management, 107, 84-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.013
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 Macamo, C. C. F.; Costa, F. I.; Bandeira, S.; Adams, J. B.; Balidy, H. J. "Mangrove community-based management in Eastern Africa: experiences from rural Mozambique". Frontiers in Marine Science. 11: 1–13.
  20. ↑ Berkes, F. "From community-based resource management to complex systems: The scale issue and marine commons". Ecology and Society. 11 – via JSTOR.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Akram, H., Hussain, S., Mazumdar, P., Chua, K. O., Butt, T. E., & Harikrishna, J. A. (2023). Mangrove Health: A Review of Functions, Threats, and Challenges Associated with Mangrove Management Practices. Forests, 14(9), 1698–1698. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14091698
  22. ↑ Nyangoko, B. P., Berg, H., Mangora, M. M., Gullström, M., & Shalli, M. S. (2021). Community perceptions of mangrove ecosystem services and their determinants in the rufiji delta, tanzania. Sustainability, 13(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010063


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