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Introduction

This page investigates the causes and consequences of megafauna extinctions in British Columbia, such as mammoths, which disappeared at the end of the Pleistocene epoch. A prominent theory explaining this extinction is the changing climate as the planet transitioned from a glacial to interglacial state, allowing humans to expand their habitable range and target the vulnerable mammoth populations, escalating their rate of extinction[1]. The extinction of mammoths, a keystone species in North America, triggered a wave of ecosystem collapse, lowering the carrying capacity of other species[2]. This historical context provides background to analyze modern threats, consequences and solutions to biodiversity loss in British Columbia and around the world. Beyond this major extinctions, human impacts have continued to make other populations of species vulnerable since the end of the Pleistocene, and studying this wave of extinctions may provide insight into current conservation challenges. This article also researches the effects of more recent eradications of large carnivores from British Columbia on ecosystems. Lastly, the project investigates debates and benefits regarding rewilding; the process of returning ecosystems to their natural state by decreasing human interference[3]. By studying the loss of important mammals in the province, important lessons can be learned about how fragile the balances of ecosystems are and the consequences of poor land use methods, proving the importance of strong conservation strategies. Understanding these lessons is crucial for creating future conservation efforts for the province, as well as the rest of the world.

Biodiversity in British Columbia

The province of British Columbia is one of the most biodiverse areas in Canada, as well as one of the most ecologically unique areas in the world[4]. The region comprises a range of topography, such as various coastlines, mountain ranges, and arid regions, as well as a long (and recent) glacial history. This variety of landscapes allows for tens of thousands of plant and animal species to inhabit the province. However, these ecosystems have been facing issues as overharvesting and deforestation are prominent in British Columbia's recent history.

Mammoths in Northern Spain during the Ice Age

Pleistocene Extinctions

Historical Extinctions

During the late Pleistocene (roughly 50,000 years ago), each continent had over 150 species of megafauna, but just 10,000 years ago, nearly 65% of those species were extinct[5]. Most of these large animals are classified as slow-breeders, who prioritized the survival rate of only a few offspring during their lifetime, as opposed to mass reproduction. The main causes of extinctions were habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as climate change. For large mammals, habitat loss and fragmentation can be especially harmful due to the high quantities of food and habitats needed to support their livelihoods[6]. One of these large, slow-breeding mammals is the woolly mammoth, which is known for its large size and long, striking tusks. Another animal that went extinct in the late Pleistocene was the giant ground sloth. These herbivores lived in a geographic range from Patagonia to Alaska, and had similar reproduction characteristics to the mammoth, including having one child at a time and extensive parental care. It is believed that they became fully extinct 11,000 years ago[7], like many other large mammals during the time.

Recent Extinctions

In the last few decades, hunting frequency in British Columbia has decreased due to regulations, but overall, the amount of animal harvesting has increased since the Pleistocene[8]. For example, moose populations are decreasing by about 50 percent of the population[9] as a result of licensed harvesting. Moose are highly valued in the province due to their food and ceremonial benefits for First Nations. Grizzly bear hunting in British Columbia became permanently banned in 2017 after a long history of hunting them for bounties and sport. Prior to the hunting ban, the yearly hunting allowance for grizzly bears was 682 per year, yet this limit was often exceeded with no legal repercussions[10]. Between the recent moose population decline and history of overhunting of grizzly bears, British Columbia residents have proved to be more than capable of dwindling animal populations.

Importance of Studying Past Extinctions

Studying past extinctions of large mammals in British Columbia is essential to understanding the long-term effects of human impacts on ecosystems. The disappearance of animals like the woolly mammoth shows how anthropocentric actions can cause irreversible biodiversity loss and alter vegetation and predator-prey dynamics. Similarly, the more recent decline of important predators, such as grizzly bears, demonstrates how human-driven pressures can threaten the survival of species. By examining past extinctions, conservationists can more easily predict the consequences of species loss and help society move in the direction of wildlife protection, rewiliding, and habitat restoration, overall protecting British Columbia's landscapes and wildlife populations[11].

Causes of Extinction

Environmental Changes

Several environmental factors can result in the extinction of species.

Change in temperature through exceeding tolerances, reducing breeding time, and increased need for metabolic demand for oxygen with reduced oxygen content of the water[12]can result in extinction. Increasing or decreasing global temperature results in great harm to global biodiversity, as well as the likelihood of extinctions. Decreasing precipitation may lead to water stress, death, extinction, and habitat losses and increased risks of severe wet/dry cycles resulting in flooding and drought.[12]

Land change is affected by the dying out of large mammals. Conducting paleoeecological studies suggests that extinct megafauna maintained vegetation openness and created mosaics of different structural types of vegetation with high diversity.

Land change and megafauna extinction also changed areas' fire regimes. The effects of large herbivores can result in the reduction of vegetation, helping with species coexistence and dispersal, additionally reducing the risk of fires by preventing plant detritus from building up. Removing large herbivores increases the likelihood of fires due to accumulations of dry material, resulting in a changed fire regime.[13]

Human Based Causations

Columbian mammoth hunted by Paleoamericans

Hunting resulted in large extinctions of megafauna, including mammoths; ground sloths; giant kangaroos; moa; and many others.[13]

Decline of predators due to habitat destruction and displacement, including the effects of hunting, can result in weakened functional roles within ecosystems. [14]The depletion of predator populations results in prey abundance changes through predation and can alter prey behaviour and habitat use through ‘landscapes of fear,’ affecting disease dynamics, carbon cycles, nutrient cycles, and ecosystem function.

Habitat destruction reduces resource availability, affecting reproduction and survival, while hunting directly increases mortality, putting species at risk for extinction.[14]

Impacts

The extinction of woolly mammoths triggered significant ecological and landscape changes, affecting both biodiversity and the environment. Mammoths were keystone species that helped maintain grasslands by preventing woody plant growth, and their loss led to habitat degradation and reduced resources for other species. Their disappearance also disrupted vital processes like nutrient cycling and decomposition, impacting scavengers and other organisms. Additionally, the absence of large grazers contributed to climate shifts and changes in vegetation. These ecological changes highlight the complex, far-reaching effects of megafauna extinction on ecosystems, requiring consideration from multiple perspectives to address environmental challenges today.

Land Dynamic Changes

Landscapes are dynamic systems shaped by the interactions of climate, vegetation, and animal activity. The extinction of mammoths triggered colossal ecological changes throughout landscapes by eliminating key agents of disturbance and ecosystem maintenance.  These large herbivores were keystone species, as they enhanced biodiversity at the patch level by preventing woody regeneration and shrub encroachment in grasslands.. This ultimately lowered carrying capacity for non-migratory grazers, reducing the number of organisms an environment can sustainably support [2]. Additionally, their heavy physicality (weight: > 1000 pounds) compacted snow through trampling, wallowing and digging, thus maintaining water sources like ponds and mineral licks, which became more susceptible to infilling with sediment after their disappearance, leading to a decline in available surface water [2]. Their loss led to habitat changes—such as increased shrub growth and fewer open grasslands—which made the land less suitable for other grazing animals. This resulted in fewer available resources like general food and water for many species reliant on mammoths to engineer land systems, ultimately limiting the populations of species that depended on those conditions. The loss of these ecosystem engineers set off irreparable cascading effects that reshaped floral and faunal communities, illustrating how mega-mammal extinctions functioned as ecological catastrophes with long-term consequences for landscape dynamics [2].

Teratornis (extinct Teratornis merri-ami), a scavenger species that depended on mega-mammal carcass for food supply.

Species-Species Interactions

The decline in mammoth populations led to the disappearance of a wide range of species reliant on their ecological role, further disrupting essential processes in nutrient cycling, food web, and decomposition. Many insect species, including dung beetles, relied on the dung of large herbivores like mammoths as a food source and a breeding ground, as their larvae feed on the dung once hatched. When mammoths went extinct, the availability of their dung diminished, leading to a dramatic reduction in the food supply for these insects, thus causing their populations to collapse or disappear entirely. The loss of mammoths as seed dispersers also caused shifts in plant distributions [2]. Additionally, scavengers and predators that depended on mega-mammal carcasses, such as carnivorous mammals like dire wolves, bird species like condors, and arthropods, faced severe declines due to the loss of a vital food supply [2].

Climate Shifting

During the Late Pleistocene (approximately 60,000 to 12,000 years ago), climatic instability triggered an initial wave of species decline that ultimately contributed to a much larger extinction event involving megafauna like the woolly mammoth. Sudden warming periods, or interstadials, brought rapid shifts in temperature and precipitation, leading to the replacement of highly productive grassland steppes with low-productivity moss-tundra environments [15] [16]. This shift drastically altered the structure of ecosystems and reduced the availability of forage for large herbivores. Studies have shown that herbivore grazing enhances plant productivity, as observed in modern African savannas and hypothesized in pre-colonial California grasslands [17][18]. It is likely that mammoths and other grazers played a similar role in maintaining the health of Pleistocene ecosystems. Their disappearance would have removed this ecological function, accelerating habitat degradation and pushing biomes into less stable states. Current ecological experiments in regions such as Yakutia demonstrate that reintroducing large grazers to tundra ecosystems can stimulate a shift back toward productive grasslands, offering insight into the past dynamics of herbivore-driven landscape change [19][20]. Additionally, the decline of megafauna may have had broader climatic consequences—research suggests that mammoth extinction allowed shrub species like birch to proliferate, changing surface reflectivity and possibly contributing to regional warming trends [21].. These intertwined ecological and climatic changes illustrate how relatively small extinction pulses, when paired with environmental stress, can escalate into widespread extinction cascades.

Links to Modern Conservation Efforts

Parallels in Extinction Factors

A rolling landscape in Indonesia with evenly spaced, small, oil palm trees.
Land conversion for palm oil plantations in Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia has become a leading cause of habitat loss and threatens biodiversity in surrounding ecosystems

While the extinction of mammoths may seem distant, much can be learned from the loss of these large mammals. The causal factors for mammoth extinction at the end of the Pleistocene share many parallels with the challenges facing modern biodiversity. A primary driver of mammoth extinction was the changing climate as the earth moved from a glacial to warmer interglacial period [1]. The warming climate allowed humans to expand into new territory, targeting vulnerable mammoth populations, accelerating extinction.

The challenges facing today’s species can be seen as a blend of previous extinction factors unfolding on a much larger scale. Climate change, now human driven through the release of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere, again poses one of the largest threats to biodiversity worldwide [22]. Temperature rises associated with increased carbon dioxide levels create unpredictable and extreme fluctuations in hydrologic systems disrupting the annual cycles on which much of Earth’s biodiversity relies. Climate change also leads to other damaging changes like ocean acidification, problems in nutrient cycling, and the spread of invasive species, further expanding the threats to biodiversity. Additionally, human expansion, now primarily in the form of land use change for agriculture, is the leading cause of habitat loss globally and now accounts for over 40% of all habitable land [23]. Unsustainable land management of these converted lands also result in contamination of waterways and remaining habitat, exacerbating the problem [22]. The combination of anthropogenic climate change coupled with land use change and mismanagement are crucial factors that have led to a staggering 73% shrink in the size of monitored populations worldwide over the past 50 years [23]. Similar to the extinction of mammoths, today's species made vulnerable by climate change are becoming increasingly threatened by human activity, pushing them toward the same fate of extinction.

Parallels in the Consequences of Extinction

A large African Elephant in a lush grassland. The elephant is feeding on grasses which it will disperse, increasing biodiversity.
African Elephants, such as this one, work to maintain the landscape by spreading seeds and knocking down trees.
Park workers and volunteers carry a metal kennel with a wolf inside to an acclimation pen in preparation for release.
Wolves being reintroduced to Yellowstone Nation Park in 1995 after nearly a century of absence. The sweeping restoration of ecosystem balance that followed is a famous conservation success story.

By studying the effects of mammoth extinction on the North American landscapes and drawing parallels to today's species loss, patterns can be identified and future ecosystem collapse prevented. The loss of mammoths from North America had drastic consequences for the biodiversity of the continent and accelerated the extinction of many species that relied on mammoths as a keystone species [2]. These historic patterns are already taking place in today's ecosystems as keystone species face threats. The declining populations of African Elephants due to poaching and habitat loss provides a pressing example of these current issues. Much like their mammoth relatives, African Elephants are an important keystone species and ecosystem engineer on the landscape [24]. Through their feeding and migration pattern they disperse many species of seeds reliably and efficiently, promoting forest regeneration and biodiversity [25]. As elephant populations and range shrinks, however, the diversity of seeds that are dispersed and the distance they travel are declining. The decreasing biodiversity in seed dispersal increases the vulnerability of the ecosystem to further disturbance, very similar to the patterns seen following mammoth extinction. African Elephants also facilitate open grasslands by knocking down trees which promotes biodiversity in today's savannas [24]. As their presence dwindles, the risk of forest encroachment increases and threatens biodiversity.

Elephants are far from the only example where the decline of a keystone species has negatively impacted the ecosystem. The extermination of wolves from Yellowstone National Park provides another example where species loss has had parallel effects to those caused by mammoth extinction. By the early 1900s, wolves and other large carnivores had been completely hunted from the park [26]. Without predation to keep the ecosystem in balance, ungulate populations spiked, degrading habitat and threatening biodiversity throughout the park. Over consumption of young willow and aspen trees increased riparian zone erosion and damaged aquatic habitat. The imbalance sent the park ecosystems into trophic cascade, hurting biodiversity and local community vitality alike.

It is clear that ecosystem collapse following mammoth extinction shares many similarities with the effects of current species decline. While this parallel exemplifies the dangerous path of biodiversity loss that awaits if no action is taken, it also provides unique incite for conservation efforts. Unlike mammoths, today's endangered species are not yet extinct, meaning there is still potential to reverse the negative effects on ecosystems using what has been learned from mammoths. In the 1990s, wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone and have restored much of the biodiversity that was degraded, exemplifying that it is not too late to alter the course of species extinction [26]. Studying historic mammoth extinctions can serve as a case study, illustrating what can happen if an important species is irreversibly removed from a landscape. This can advice current conservation decisions as they work to prevent the same fate in today's ecosystems.

Implementing the Lessons of Mammoths - the Importance of Biodiversity for Fighting Climate Change

Examining the effects of both mammoth extinction and modern species loss has exemplified the importance of keystone species in maintaining the biodiversity of ecosystems. In line with these observations, research has found that trophic large animal promote complex food webs that are vital for helping ecosystems withstand disturbance [27][28]. Large animals can increase habitat heterogeneity which can contribute to efficient carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling [29]. As climate change presents a significant and growing disturbance to ecosystems, it is vital to implement solutions that achieve biological conservation and climate mitigation simultaneously. Doing so can ensure that ecosystems are able to adapt to climatic changes and remain healthy in the long term to provide ecosystem services. Based on their contribution both goals, the protection of keystone species forms an important area of conservation study illuminated by this investigation of mammoths.

Policies and Solutions

Policy and Community Involvement

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

The current solutions to curbing extinctions and biodiversity loss are not sufficient to meet the Aichi Biodiversity Targets [30]. Part of this is due to current conservation research focusing on identifying and prioritizing high-risk species and regions instead of solving causes of biodiversity loss[31], and while this can help to reduce biodiversity loss, not addressing the root cause will only result in more losses. By branching out to other disciplines, and making conservation a multi-disciplinary arena, the chances of finding solutions increase.

Furthermore, to find solutions for biodiversity loss and protection, as well as conservation, Indigenous people must be involved. One such solution includes braiding endangered species law and Indigenous rights, helping countries uphold the rights of Indigenous peoples, prevent species extinction, and provide benefits to society.[32]

Indigenous Involvement

Importance

Through ownership of forested lands, Indigenous people contribute to carbon sequestration, emphasizing the importance of Indigenous stewardship for sustainable forest management and global climate stability[33]. Biodiversity decline is also significantly lower on Indigenous Peoples’ lands than in other areas across the globe.

Implications

Indigenous communities succeed in reducing decline of biodiversity as a result of land use systems promoting three notable features for sustainability: high levels of biodiversity, socioecological resilience, and stable stewardship over long periods[33]."

Biodiversity decline and conservation efforts also demonstrate inequities in biodiversity conservation policies when involving culturally significant species[32], as the effects of colonialism resulted in violations of Indigenous rights and in laws centred around achieving minimum viable populations, and not fulfilling culturally significant quantities, and not fulfilling culturally significant quantities[32].

Traditionally, conservationists defined wilderness through the U.S. Wilderness Act of 1964: an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, perpetuating fortress conservation practices, and creating negative implications for Indigenous people due to the mentality that conservation areas need to be “bordered and guarded to keep wildlife in and unwanted humans out[2]".

Fortress conservation means that “conservation has become the number one threat to indigenous territories, due to the perhaps well-meaning attempt to protect land, ultimately resulting in fortress conservation and the pushing out of Indigenous peoples from their territories[2].

Despite the benefits of Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), stakeholders like Indigenous people receive virtually no funding from international funding agencies. As a result, indigenous people are often excluded from monetary decisions and lose out on the opportunity to make decisions on lands they live on and maintain[2].

Rewilding Debates

Scientific process: extraction and splicing of mammoth DNA to artificially inseminate modern Asian elephant species.

Bringing Back Extinct Species

The revival of extinct species, such as the woolly mammoth, has transitioned from speculative idea to active research. Colossal Biosciences, a startup based in the U.S., is leading an ambitious effort to bring back mammoths or similar creatures through the reconstruction of their DNA, with plans to reintroduce them to the cold landscapes of the Siberian tundra. This project is part of a broader concept known as de-extinction, which has gained traction among both corporate and public research communities. De-extinction relies on the belief that technological advancements in genetics and biotechnology can not only save species on the brink of extinction but can also resurrect those that are long gone [34]. While this field has sparked debates about its ethical and environmental implications, it reflects a growing trust in the potential of science and technology to intervene in ecological processes in unprecedented ways.

Process

The revival of extinct species, like the woolly mammoth, involves cutting-edge genetic techniques and selective breeding practices. Researchers at Harvard are attempting to create an Asian elephant with mammoth traits, such as a thick, fur-covered coat, by merging the DNA of both species. This process begins by extracting preserved mammoth DNA from frozen sperm samples and injecting it into the eggs of a surrogate Asian elephant. Using artificial insemination and several generations of controlled breeding, scientists hope to produce an elephant that closely mirrors the mammoth [34]. This effort is part of ongoing work, including the Mammoth Creation Project in Japan, which focuses on creating hybrids of mammoths and elephants or even cloning mammoths. These creatures could potentially be reintroduced into the Siberian tundra, helping to restore the ecosystem by recreating ice-packed conditions [35][34].

3D imagery of a Woolly-mammoth

Ethics

The ethical implications of reviving extinct species are complex, particularly when considering the potential suffering of the creatures and the possibility of genetic defects. One significant challenge is the difficulty of adapting ancient DNA to a modern ecosystem. Due to the extreme age of the DNA, many samples are fraught with errors, which raises concerns about the feasibility of creating a viable organism. Dr. Jeremy Austin, Deputy Director of the Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, compared the cloning process to trying to build a car with only partial and damaged parts, highlighting the technical and biological difficulties of the task [34]. With advanced technology in the new biology, these include the potential for accidental release of synthetic organisms into the wild, biosecurity threats, and deep public unease surrounding artificial life. Furthermore, there is the ethical dilemma of intervening in natural processes, such as extinction, and whether it is morally acceptable to use advanced technology to reverse nature's course, especially when cloning humans is not permitted. While some see de-extinction as an exciting scientific breakthrough, others argue that it presents a dangerous distraction. Conservationists warn that such efforts may encourage complacency in preserving existing species and ecosystems, shifting focus away from protecting habitats that are at risk today. De-extinction can foster a false sense of security about conservation efforts [34]. Yet, the pursuit of ending extinction remains a powerful ideal, despite the numerous ethical and scientific hurdles.

Bringing Back Keystone Species

Pros

Reintroducing keystone predators and restoring ecosystems to their former biodiversity holds immense ecological and social value. By rewilding landscapes with species that would have naturally inhabited them before major human disruptions, we can help revive essential ecological functions. These restored ecosystems not only support biodiversity but also contribute to climate resilience by reducing flood risks, preventing soil erosion, and capturing atmospheric carbon [36]. On a broader scale, rewilding fosters access to clean air, water, and other natural resources vital to human well-being. Economically, this approach offers benefits to communities through improved health, reduced environmental hazards, and the potential for sustainable livelihoods tied to ecotourism and land stewardship [37]. With support from governments, financial institutions, and conservation organizations, rewilding can be implemented safely and effectively, guided by internationally recognized principles. As global environmental goals move forward, initiatives rooted in rewilding offer a promising, nature-based pathway toward long-term ecological recovery and sustainable development.

Cons

While rewilding offers ecological and social promise, its success depends heavily on thoughtful planning and inclusive management. If not implemented carefully, the process can lead to unintended consequences, such as harming existing ecosystems or marginalizing communities that have long depended on traditional land uses like farming, forestry, and fishing [37]. A lack of proper consultation with local residents often results in mistrust, resistance, and even the abandonment of projects. When rewilding efforts overlook the needs and values of those who live closest to the land, they risk sparking conflict rather than cooperation. For rewilding to be truly effective and equitable, it must include the voices of local stakeholders from the beginning and be tailored to support both conservation goals and community well-being.

Conclusion

It is visible that extinctions of large mammals in British Columbia have complex connections between how vulnerable populations (such as the woolly mammoth at the end of the Pleistoscene) are effected by changing environments and human actions. It is important to understand these connections as they provide lessons to help shape current and future conservation efforts as reduction of biodiversity from human interactions is still occuring in the present day. Current policies, especially those including Indigenous involvement, help prevent extinctions of species and inclusion of traditional knowledge. The concept of rewilding is also being introduced to bring back extinct species through biotechnology, but its ethics and efficiency are highly debated. As species continue to be threatened in British Columbia, including Indigenous and public opinions/perspectives, as well as scientific facts, will be crucial for creating a strong and resilient future.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[38]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Nogués-Bravo, David (April 1, 2008). "Climate Change, Humans, and the Extinction of the Woolly Mammoth". PLOS Biology.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 Haynes, Gary (2002). "The Catastrophic Extinction of North American Mammoths and Mastodonts". World Archaeology. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 33: 391–416. ISSN 00438243-14701375 Check |issn= value (help) – via JSTOR. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":3" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ "IUCN Issues Brief: The Benefits and Risks of Rewilding" (PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature. June 2001.
  4. ↑ MacDuffee, Misty (May 20, 2011). "BC's coastal biodiversity: the highest in North America". Raincoast Conservation Foundation.
  5. ↑ Barnosky, Anthony (October 1, 2004). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents". Science.
  6. ↑ Wang, Yue (December 16, 2020). "Caught in a bottleneck: Habitat loss for woolly mammoths in central North America and the ice-free corridor during the last deglaciation". Global Ecology and Biogeography.
  7. ↑ Mason, Betsy. "Humans Drove Giant Sloths to Extinction". Science.
  8. ↑ "Hunting data". Government of Canada. August 20, 2024.
  9. ↑ Kuzyk, Gerald (2016). "PROVINCIAL POPULATION AND HARVEST ESTIMATES OF MOOSE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA". ALCES. line feed character in |title= at position 56 (help)
  10. ↑ "The history and divergent views on grizzly bear hunting in British Columbia, Canada". University of British Columbia.
  11. ↑ Nogués-Bravo, David (April 1, 2008). "Climate Change, Humans, and the Extinction of the Woolly Mammoth". PLOS Biology.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cahill, Abigail E.; et al. (January 7, 2013). "How does climate change cause extinction?". The Royal Society. 280 – via National Library of Medicine. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Johnson, CN (March 18, 2009). "Ecological consequences of Late Quaternary extinctions of megafauna". National Library of Medicine.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Romero-Muñoz, Alfredo; et al. (February 12, 2025). "Hunting and Habitat Destruction Drive Widespread Functional Declines of Top Predators in a Global Deforestation Hotspot". Diversity and Distributions: A Journal of Conservation Biogeography – via Wiley Online Library. Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
  15. ↑ Haynes, Gary (December 2002). The Early Settlement of North America. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521819008.
  16. ↑ "Mammoths killed by abrupt climate change". Science Daily. 23 July 2015. |first= missing |last= (help)
  17. ↑ Bell, Richard H. (July 1971). "A Grazing Ecosystem in the Serengeti". Scientific American. 225: 86–93 – via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System.
  18. ↑ Edwards, S. W. (1992). "Observations on the prehistory and ecology of grazing in California". Fremontia. 20: 3–11 – via Range Science Information System (RSIS).
  19. ↑ 1. Zimov, 2. Chuprynin, 3. Oreshko 4. Chapin, 5. Reynolds & 6. Chapin, 1. S. A., 2. V. I., 3. A. P., 4. , F. S. 5. J, 6. , M. CF., (1995). "Steppe–tundra transition: A herbivore-driven biome shift at the end of the Pleistocene". American Naturalist. 146: 765–794 – via PubMed.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Stone, Richard (1998). "A Bold Plan to Re-Create a Long-Lost Siberian Ecosystem". Science. 282: 31–34.
  21. ↑ 1. Doughty, 2. Wolf, 3. Field, 1. Christopher E., 2. Adam, 3. Christopher B. (7 August 2010). "Biophysical feedbacks between the Pleistocene megafauna extinction and climate: The first human‐induced global warming?". GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS. 37: 1–5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Habibullah, Muzafar Shah; Din, Badariah Haji; Tan, Siow-Hooi; Zahid, Hasan (03 August 2021). "Impact of climate change on biodiversity loss: global evidence". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29: 1073–1086 – via Springer Nature Link. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Living Planet Report 2024". World Wildlife Fund. 2024. Retrieved 08/04/2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Haynes, Gary (01 July 2012). "Elephants (and extinct relatives) as earth-movers and ecosystem engineers". Geomorphology. 157-158: 99–107 – via Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ↑ Campos-Arceiz, Ahimsa; Blake, Steve (December 2011). "Megagardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal". Acta Oecologica. 37: 542–553 – via Science Direct.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Yellowstone National Park". National Park Service. 08 April 2025. Retrieved 08 april 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Malhi, Yadvinder; Lander, Tonya; le Roux, Elizabeth; Stevens, Nicola; Macias-Fauria, Marc; Wedding, Lisa; Girardin, Cécile; Kristensen, Jeppe Ågård (22 feb 2022). "The role of large wild animals in climate change mitigation and adaptation". Current Biology. 32: R181–R196 – via Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ↑ de Mazancourt, Claire; Isbell, Forest (may 2013). "Predicting ecosystem stability from community composition and biodiversity". Pub Med. 16: 617–625 – via National Library of Medicine. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: display-authors (link)
  29. ↑ Peziol, Michelle; Elbroch, L. Mark; Shipley, Lisa A.; Evans &, R. Dave; Thornton, Daniel H. (27 march 2023). "Large carnivore foraging contributes to heterogeneity in nutrient cycling". Landscape Ecology. 38: 1497–1509 – via Springer Nature Link. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ↑ "Aichi Biodiversity Targets". Convention on Biodiversity. September 18, 2020. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
  31. ↑ Martin, Rachel N.; et al. (July 1, 2024). "The Extinction Solutions Index (ESI): A framework to measure solution efficiency to address biodiversity loss". Hoboken. Vol. 5: 1–3, 5–6 – via Proquest. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Lamb, Clayton T.; et al. (May 18, 2023). "Braiding Indigenous rights and endangered species law". Science. 380. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Estrada, Alejandro; et al. (August 10, 2022). "Global importance of Indigenous Peoples, their lands, and knowledge systems for saving the world's primates from extinction". Science. Vol. 8: 2–4 – via National Library of Medicine. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Fletcher, Robert (March 1, 2013). "Bodies Do Matter: The Peculiar Persistence of Neoliberalism in Environmental Governance". Human Geography. 6: 29–45.
  35. ↑ Larson, Christina (March 4, 2025). "Scientists genetically engineer mice with thick hair like the extinct woolly mammoth". The Associated Press.
  36. ↑ IUCN (June 2021). "The benefits and risks of rewilding". IUCN.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 IUCN/SSC (2013). "Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations" (PDF). IUCN Species Survival Commission. Gland, Switzerland. viiii: 57.
  38. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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