Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Preserving the spots: Strategies for Jaguar Conservation in Colombia

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The Jaguar (Panthera onca) conservation in Colombia has become a rising issue. Jaguars are a keystone species in their ecosystem in Colombia, playing a critical role in maintaining the balance of their habitat[1].However, they are currently endangered, facing increasing risks of further population decline. One of the primary threats to jaguar survival is habitat isolation caused by land development, which fragments the vast and continuous landscapes that these predators require[1].

The conservation of jaguars in Colombia is an urgent and complex issue. The region has a history of conservation efforts, but significant challenges remain. Habitat loss and fragmentation have escalated, primarily driven by agricultural expansion and human development. These species need vast land for hunting purposes, to sustain their immense diet. The fur trade has also historically contributed to the decline of jaguar populations, with an estimated 54% reduction in their natural habitat[2]. These challenges have led to severe habitat fragmentation, which compromises the health and stability of jaguar populations.

These species habitats are most prevalent in these regions; tropical rainforests, montane and gallery forests, riparian, and gallery forests with rivers, marshes and beaches, and tropical savannahs[2].

Jaguars run the risk of high extinction, and the rapid loss of habitat furthers the species' rates of population decline. Humans also hunt these animals out of scarcity for their safety. Jaguars are seen as a threat to humans and other species around them[3].  Panthera onca is used as a food source in some rural communities, hunted out of fear and survival. These communities hunt the species for both survival in terms of food and security. As most species are facing this same issue, here are some of the specific needs for this species to sustain its livelihood, and repopulate.

Addressing these threats requires comprehensive conservation strategies and robust policies. By implementing solutions that mitigate habitat loss and connect fragmented landscapes, there is hope to preserve jaguar populations and ensure their future within Colombia’s ecosystems.

About Jaguars

Portrait of Panthera onca, photographed in Colombia.
Panthera onca, photographed in Colombia.

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is one of the five large cat species, which includes the lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard, and snow leopard of the Pantherinae family. However, the Jaguar is the largest cat species in the Americas and can weigh up to 348 lbs. However, this varies quite dramatically depending on their geographical location[4]

The historical range of the jaguar was vast and reached from the southern United States to southern Argentina, Spanning over 20 countries[5]. However, the jaguar’s current range has since decreased drastically from approximately 19.1 million km2 to approximately 8.75 km2, a loss of nearly 46%[2]. This decline in the natural range of the jaguar has also resulted in a rapidly declining population, placing the jaguar on the IUCN red list as Near Threatened and even resulted in local extinction in El Salvador and Uruguay[5]. This is largely due to the rapid changes in land use across the neotropics, As the jaguar’s habitat is being converted into palm oil plantations and open fields for cattle ranching.

Jaguars are very mobile and have a low population density[5]. They prefer wetlands, and tropical forested areas as they are competent swimmers and use dense vegetation to stalk and ambush their prey[6]. This method of hunting requires little energy and utilizes their camouflaged coat to blend in with their environment. The diet of the jaguar is primarily carnivorous and includes a wide range of species. The jaguars of Colombia most commonly prey on armadillos, peccaries, and Tapirs, as well as other ungulates and small vertebrates. Jaguars evolved to have an immensely strong bite force which allows them to crush the shells of turtles and tortoises or kill larger prey by crushing their skull. This strong bite force is a massive advantage as no other felids could break these strong shells resulting in an abundant food source for the jaguar before the decline in Chelonians (turtles, terrapins, and tortoises)[7].

History of Jaguars in Colombia

Historical jaguar hunting practices and interactions with humans have severely impacted population trends within Colombia, specifically in the Magdalena River Valley.

Prior to 1975, the three most prominent causes for the hunting of jaguars included obtaining its pelt for warmth or trading, revenge for the killing of livestock, and for trophy [8] .  Jaguar pelts were seen in many communities and cultures as a sign of ferocity and strength, indicating its high social worth [8]. Jaguars were commonly hunted and traded for other goods, such as fabrics and spices, severely depleting local populations [9] . However, in 1975, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), successfully enforced law against international jaguar trade, initiating a population trend improvement until the 1990’s when harsh land-use change due to agriculture began [9].

Colombian jaguars have been depicted throughout history through indigenous illustrations and text, colonial journals, scientific journals and books, as well as legends and folktales, proving to play an important role in social and cultural perspectives [8]. Depending on the community and culture, spiritual rituals, totems, paintings, and sculptures were said to be used as a way to communicate and relate to the dominant predators [8]. These were also used as ways to send respect to local jaguars, in hopes of bringing peace and safety to the rest of the community [8]. Due to extreme social and civil conflict along the Magdalena River in Colombia in the late 1900’s, most land was converted to agricultural uses to support the suffering economy, leading to an increase of deforestation, losing crucial jaguar habitat [1].

The rate decline in jaguar populations in Colombia have slowed since 1975 along with the international fur trade, but has yet to completely plateau due to land-use change [10]. The range of the jaguar species habitat has decreased 60% over the past 400 years, mainly due to habitat fragmentation, making it difficult for Colombian jaguars to fully rebound [6].

Drivers of Jaguar Decline in Colombia

Habitat Loss

One of the greatest threats to jaguar populations in Colombia is habitat loss, predominantly due to ecosystem fragmentation, deforestation, and land conversion. Jaguars rely on forests for habitat and food. However, the majority of historical forests in Colombia have been cleared for cattle and palm oil, and the rest have been fragmented[6]. Deforestation is a large issue in Colombia, and between 1990 and 2018, Colombia  lost 9.8 million hectares of forests, due to a variety of legal and illegal drivers[11]. Large areas of forests are cleared for both palm oil plantations and cattle range, but coca farming also plays a role in deforestation in Colombia as well[12]. Deforestation not only means loss of habitat for jaguars, but it also affects many prey species for jaguars, such as tapirs and peccaries, which are both extinct in some regions of Colombia and vulnerable in the rest[13]. As deforestation occurs, fragmentation partitions the remaining habitat into smaller more isolated areas[14]. This is a large issue as connectivity is incredibly important for remaining jaguar populations. Fragmentation limits the natural range of jaguars for predation and mating, which can result in a decreasing gene pool, further putting populations at risk[14].

Land-Use Change

A rancher holding up a Panthera onca pelt.
Panthera onca pelt

Another form of habitat loss which is greatly affecting jaguar populations is land-use change, especially the change and destruction of wetland ecosystems. Jaguars are increasingly relying on wetlands for food sources and forests for habitat[6][15]. Palm oil plantations play a key role in land use change, as palm oil plantations are often built near and around aquatic ecosystems, which affects jaguars’ access to these ecosystems and can impact the quality of these wetland ecosystem through sedimentation and other environmental damage[16]. Furthermore, wetland ecosystems are more susceptible to impacts related to climate change, especially wetlands with low hydrologic buffers[17].

Poaching and Retaliation

Poaching and retaliation is another driver threatening jaguars. Poaching jaguars’ prey species continues to be a large issue in Colombia, with poachers mainly killing prey species such as peccaries, giant anteaters, and brockets, for protein or economic value[18]. Although killing jaguars is illegal in Colombia, jaguars are still killed in retaliation generally for killing livestock. As jaguar habitat decreases and less natural prey is available, jaguars are more likely to predate on farmers' livestock especially cattle, which leads to retaliatory hunting by farmers to protect their cattle[1].

Solutions for Jaguar Conservation in Colombia

Maintaining the habitat of jaguars is crucial for the conservation of the species, however, it comes with many difficulties. Jaguar populations have fallen rapidly and land use change and poaching are at fault. Colombia's forests are being converted into cattle ranches and palm oil plantations resulting in forest fragmentation and loss of habitat, drastically affecting the natural range of the jaguar and their prey abundance[12]. The poaching of Jaguars and their prey is furthering the issue. To preserve this keystone species, immediate policy change and protection is required.

The conservation of the Jaguar Truly began in 1975 when they were added to CITES after their populations had fallen significantly due to hunting and trade. This legislation change resulted in a stabilization of their decline, however, illegal poaching persists today at a smaller scale[9]. Poaching is an especially important driver for population decline as it affects jaguars directly through trophy hunting and the fur trade and indirectly through the poaching of their prey. Due to the already limited range of Jaguars further loss of prey and mating partners may be detrimental to the species[6]. As a solution to this lingering issue, stricter consequences should be implemented for the killing and trade of jaguars. In addition to more stringent penalties, more protected areas in their preferred habitat should be created to combat poaching, land use change, and fragmentation.

To combat land use change and fragmentation Boron et al. state that maintaining and protecting wetlands and forested areas is imperative for the jaguar population to rebound. The changing land use impacts not only the jaguars’ habitat, range, and population but also their preys abundance[18]. The jaguars have experienced a 67% loss in habitat over the last 400 years; the decline continues today[6]. To combat the shrinking range and fragmentation of Jaguar habitat a change in policy is required for the creation of palm oil plantations and cattle ranches. As well as increased protection for the primary habitat of jaguars. As a solution to this problem, Boron et al suggest that pastures and open grasslands should be used as land for agricultural expansion as they have “limited conservation value”[6] for Jaguars as they are best adapted to living in wetlands and forested areas. If this change were implemented, land use change in forested areas and wetlands would be prohibited and the fragmentation of jaguar habitat would decrease. This would result in a greater chance of conserving the species. In addition to increased legislation on the abundance and location of plantations and ranches, it may be effective to offer economic incentives for ranchers and farmers to keep their land as suitable jaguar habitat.

Policies, Social/Cultural/Economic Changes Needed for Jaguar Conservation

Panthera onca must be seen as vital, living creatures, not commodities. In Colombia, where human activity continues to encroach on Panthera onca habitats, it is critical to prioritize the stability of these ecosystems [19]. A promising approach to mitigate human-wildlife conflict is to strategically manage jaguar dispersion, ensuring both the species and local communities can coexist [20].

The illegal hunting of Panthera onca has risen dramatically, particularly in areas like the rural community of Isla de Palacios. Despite being legally protected in Colombia, jaguars are often hunted for their fur, which is sold on black markets with intentions for international export [21]. The challenge of enforcing protections is compounded in isolated rural regions, where limited access to education and resources perpetuates the issue. In these areas, Panthera onca are not only hunted for their fur but also for their meat, as local communities struggle with food insecurity [21].

In Isla de Palacios, the Panthera onca is seen both as a threat and a resource. Fear of the animal often leads to retaliatory killings, while its meat provides a critical food source. This dual perspective highlights the complex relationship between local survival needs and wildlife conservation. Panthera onca are sometimes kept in captivity, further illustrating the community's fear and reliance on this species [21]. High levels of social conflict, poverty, and limited access to basic necessities such as education and healthcare exacerbate the problem, making it clear that conservation efforts cannot succeed without addressing the root causes of human-Panthera onca conflict.

To protect Panthera onca effectively, the Colombian government must invest in rural communities, offering economic support to reduce their reliance on endangered species for survival [21]. This cannot simply be a matter of enforcing strict policies; it requires providing tangible economic incentives and viable alternatives. By addressing food insecurity and offering sustainable livelihoods, the pressure on jaguar populations can be eased, benefiting both the species and the communities that depend on the same ecosystems.

Economic changes are needed for the Panthera to survive. It is critical to have communication with land owners in larger regions who occupy the habitat of the Panthera onca. Cattle ranching regions also occupy regions of Panthera onca, therefore optimal livestock management practices will ensure low predation and low levels of human to Panthera conflict [20].

Future Projections of Jaguar Populations

Future trends of jaguar populations in Colombia present both challenges and opportunities. While there are serious challenges that need to be overcome, there are also opportunities for recovery. Habitat loss and fragmentation continue to be the largest threats to jaguar populations. Currently only 57% of Colombia has potential habitat, down from a historical range of 97%, and the current rate of deforestation and fragmentation will continue to worsen the issue[1]. However, local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Colombian government have started multiple initiatives to help protect jaguar populations and their habitat in Colombia. For example, with the support of local governments, private owners, and international aid, the NGO Panthera Colombia is working to establish 30 Wildlife corridors in key areas to connect fragmented habitat for jaguars[22].

This Initiative is part of a larger project spanning 11 countries across South and Central America, and has already shown promising results. In the Predio Putumayo reserve, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has worked with local Indigenous groups to secure territories and monitor wildlife  in the larger Napo-Putumayo Corridor which spans the border between Colombia, Ecuador and Peru[23]. Monitoring in this region found that the ecosystem seemed to be recovering, with healthy populations of both jaguars, and jaguar prey species such as tapirs being observed[23]. These wildlife corridors significantly help sustain jaguar populations and ensure gene flow between populations.

Other forms of conservation are also taking place in Colombia. Tourism has allowed for certain communities to coexist with and help conserve jaguars. For example one study found that working lands had the capacity to support a growing jaguar population, when coexistence was incentivized through means such as tourism[24]. Another example is in Santa Marta, where CORPAMAG, the regional environmental agency has introduced a program to help conserve jaguars, which includes protected areas, and certificates for “jaguar friendly” produced goods such as coffee[25].

However, despite the numerous initiatives to conserve and protect jaguars in Colombia, with the current rate of habitat loss, jaguar populations are still going to decline. Even if initiatives successfully establish 30 additional wildlife corridors by 2030, a study found that 960 corridors would need to be created to truly connect the fragmented habitat that is still left in Colombia[1]. Continued action and large-scale change are needed to ensure the successful conservation of jaguars in Colombia.

Discussion and Conclusion

The largest feline species in Colombia, the jaguar, plays a key role in ecosystem function in Colombia, specifically in the Magdalena River valley, which is why the preservation of their populations is crucial [1]. The species is currently listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, and is completely extinct in other South American countries [1].

Beginning with the international fur trade spanning from the 16th to late 20th century, and more recently, urbanization issues, the jaguars of Colombia have been under constant peril due to humans [26]. In many Colombian communities, jaguar hunting was viewed as a way to demonstrate your high social standing and fierceness, creating a significant issue for local jaguar populations [8]. Up until 1975, both legal and illegal jaguar hunting was a key driver to their plummeting population, which ultimately led to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) creating laws and regulations surrounding international jaguar trade [9]. The legislation caused their population trends to improve for approximately 15 years, until extreme agricultural transformation occurred in the 1990s [9].

As of late, they are facing an imminent threat of agricultural land-use change, ultimately leading to significant habitat loss and fragmentation [6]. Their niche consists of a wide range with hunting grounds kilometers apart, which has decreased by 46% due to the implementation of palm oil and cattle farms, creating isolated areas of inhabited lands [2]. Their national population decline has slowed, but has yet to completely remain consistent because of their lack of habitat [12]. The issue surrounding poaching indirectly negatively affects their population due to the killing of natural prey, such as peccaries and large anteaters [18].

The protection of jaguars natural habitat, including wetlands and tropical forests, is a crucial and necessary path towards redeeming their ecological standing [15]. Researchers have suggested reserving grasslands and open pastures for agricultural land use to reserve prime jaguar habitat for local populations [6]. Necessary societal and economic steps towards sustainability aiding jaguar populations includes no longer viewing them as a commodity as well as valuing their natural range and preventing further land conversion [10].

We can expect a continuation of land-use change and deforestation, worsening the 57% viable habitat in Colombia [1]. However, there are many initiatives working with the aim to provide wildlife corridors to connect fragmented land, and to preserve wetlands and tropical forests [22]. Still, these efforts will not be enough to restore jaguar populations to their historical records, meaning at some point in the future, we can expect this species to become extinct in Colombia [1].

Despite efforts to mitigate the threats posed by poaching, habitat fragmentation, and agricultural expansion, the jaguar faces an uncertain future within Colombia. Without stronger, sustained action to protect its ecosystem and ensure its long-term viability, Colombia may eventually witness the extinction of its largest feline, marking a significant loss for national biodiversity.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[27]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Machado-Aguilera,, M. C.; Lemus-Mejía, L.; Pérez-Torres, J.; Zárrate-Charry, D. A.; Arias-Alzate, A; González-Maya, J. F. (2024). "Preserving the spots: Jaguar (Panthera onca) distribution and priority conservation areas in Colombia". PloS one.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Sanderson, E. W.; Redford, K. H.; Chetkiewicz, C. B.; Medellin, R. A.; Rabinowitz, A. R.; Robinson, J. G.; Taber, A. B. (2002). "Planning to save a species: The Jaguar as a model". Conservation Biology.
  3. ↑ Richardson, G (2023). "One Panthera onca and Six Jaguars: Jaguar Conservation in the Anthropocene". Doctoral dissertation, University of Guelph.
  4. ↑ Seymour, Kevin (1989). "Panthera onca". Mammalian Species. I: 1–9.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Campbell, Michael (2015). "The Factors for the Extinction of Jaguars and Cougars in El Salvador". Journal of Biodiversity, Bioprospecting, and development.: 1–7.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Boron, V (2018). "Conserving predators across agricultural landscapes in Colombia: Habitat use and space partitioning by Jaguars, Pumas, ocelots and jaguarundis". Onyx. 4.
  7. ↑ Emmons, Lousie (1987). "Comparative feeding ecology of felids in a neotropical rainforest". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 20: 271–283.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Franco, J.L. (2018). "History of science and conservation of the jaguar (Panthera onca) in Brazil". Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana y Caribeña (HALAC). 8.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Reuter, A (2021). "The Wildlife Conservation Society". Retrieved November 3, 2024.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Boron, V (2016). "Jaguar Densities across Human-Dominated Landscapes in Colombia: The Contribution of Unprotected Areas to Long Term Conservation". PLOS ONE. 11.
  11. ↑ IDEAM (2019). "Resultados monitoreo de la deforestación . Instituto de Hidrología Meteorología Y Estudios Ambientales". Missing or empty |url= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Arias-Gaviria, J.; Suarez, C. F.; Marrero-Trujillo, V; Camilo Ochoa, P. J.; Villegas-Palacio, C; Arango-Aramburo, S (2021). [doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01822-x "rivers and effects of deforestation in colombia: A systems thinking approach"] Check |url= value (help). Regional Environmental Change.
  13. ↑ IUCN (2024). [www.iucnredlist.org "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 2024-02"] Check |url= value (help).
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Crooks, K. R.; Burdett, C. L.; Theobald, D. M.; Rondinini, C.; Boitani, L (2011). "Global patterns of fragmentation and connectivity of mammalian carnivore habitat". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Figel, J. J.; Botero-Cañola, S.; Forero-Medina, G; Sánchez-Londoño, J. D.; Valenzuela, L; Noss, R. F. (2019). [Wetlands are keystone habitats for jaguars in an intercontinental biodiversity hotspot "Wetlands are keystone habitats for jaguars in an intercontinental biodiversity hotspot"] Check |url= value (help). PLoS One.
  16. ↑ Camacho-Valdez, V.; Rodiles-Hernández, R.; Navarrete-Gutiérrez, D. A.; Valencia-Barrera, A. (2022). "Tropical wetlands and land use changes: The case of oil palm in neotropical riverine floodplains". PLoS One.
  17. ↑ Junk, W. J. (2012). "Current state of knowledge regarding South America wetlands and their future under global climate change". Aquatic Sciences.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Miranda, E. B. P.; Jácomo, A. T.; Tôrres, N. M.; Alves, G. B.; Silveira, L. (2018). "What are jaguars eating in a half-empty forest? Insights from diet in an overhunted Caatinga reserve". Journal of Mammalogy.
  19. ↑ Boron, V (2018). "Conserving predators across agricultural landscapes in Colombia : Habitat use and space for partitioning by Jaguars, Pumas, ocelots and jaguarundis. Oryx".
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Quigley, H.B (1992). "A conservation plan for the jaguar Panthera onca in the Pantanal region of Brazil". Biological Conservation: 9 – via ScienceDirect.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Balaguera, Reina (2008). "Occasional jaguar hunting for subsistence in Colombian Chocó". Cat News – via Citeseer.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Panthera.org. "Jaguar Corridor - Jaguar 2030 Roadmap".
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 World Wildlife Fund (2019). "First results of the big tri-national effort to study jaguar population".
  24. ↑ Hyde, M.; Payán, E.; Barragan, J.; Stasiukynas, D.; Rincón, S.; Kendall, W. L.; Rodríguez, J; Crooks, K. R.; Breck, S. (2023). "Tourism-supported working lands sustain a growing jaguar population in the Colombian Llanos". Sci Rep.
  25. ↑ Cardona, A. (2021). "In Colombia, a successful jaguar conservation program has a whiff of coffee". Mongabay.
  26. ↑ Tapper, L (1996). "The Wild Fur Trade: Historical and Ecological Perspectives". The Exploitation of Mammal Populations.
  27. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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