Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Is ecotourism the salvation for the Mountain Gorilla in Rwanda?

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Background

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is a specific form of sustainable tourism that attracts tourists to areas of ecological interest to support the conservation of endangered ecosystems and species. This is a niche subset of the tourism industry which is small-scale, practised by smaller companies in natural areas[1]. Mountain gorillas are an important species living within Rwanda that are currently facing issues like habitat loss, biodiversity loss, and poaching[2]. Ecotourism contributes to the preservation of mountain gorillas, however, the industry simultaneously contributes to the degradation of the mountain gorillas’ land. The benefits that ecotourism has brought to the mountain gorilla population of Rwanda will be examined as well as the consequences that this process has introduced. In the future, the conservation of mountain gorillas in Rwanda will likely continue depending on the development and integration of ecotourism to improve the livelihoods of local people as an incentive for conservation[2].

Mountain Gorillas

Mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei)
Map of Rwanda, Africa

Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) reside in two isolated subpopulations that are surrounded by high-density human inhabitation and agricultural land, all within the borders of the Democratic Party of the Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda[3]. The species is fully protected by national and international laws in the three countries they reside, meaning it is illegal to kill, capture, or trade them or their body parts[3]. Prior to this protection, mountain gorillas were more likely to be subject to poaching with the intention of wildlife trafficking, as well as accidental injuries or death due to snares set for other mammals that share their habitat[3]. Since then, killings of mountain gorillas have become increasingly rare, especially direct killings with only two reported within the past two decades[3]. However, these killings highlight the vulnerability of mountain gorillas despite significant efforts for their protection. They often live in forests at high elevations of 8,000 to 1300 feet in the mountains and typically have more, thicker fur in comparison to other great apes, which helps them to survive in habitats where temperatures often drop below freezing[4].

Diet and Social Structure

Mountain gorilla's diet consists of primarily herbaceous vegetation, which varies greatly with elevation[3][5]. Their diet is generalist, feeding on up to 140 different species including leaves, shoots and stems, bark, roots, flowers, up to 36 different species of fruit, and occasionally ants[6]. There is not much of a shift in mountain gorillas’ diet throughout the year as there is not much seasonality in food availability except sometimes for fruits and highly prized bamboo shoots[6]. Of the five plant species most frequently consumed by mountain gorillas which make up approximately 70% of their diet excluding bamboo, three have increased in availability and two have decreased[5]. This change in vegetation availability can lead to a change in mountain gorillas diet which could affect their nutrient intake. The potential changes in the availability of certain plant species for mountain gorilla consumption is a growing concern as climate change and habitat fragmentation continues to threaten current plant population dynamics[5].

In mountain gorilla groups, known as troops, male-female relationships are commonly the most important relationship in mountain gorilla groups. Troops can include up to eight adult males, known as silverbacks [7]. While gorillas typically have only one silverback, approximately 40% of mountain gorilla groups are multi-male[8]. In single-male mountain gorilla groups, females spend more time with the silverback rather than other females and maturing males, and in multi-male groups, females tend to associate with the highest-ranking male over lower-ranking males in the troops[7]. Opposite to the stereotypic description of gorilla social structure where the silverback is the most socially central individual, males appear to be more or less average in their social relationships in comparison to the entire group in mountain gorilla troops due to stronger competition for mates in multi-male groups[7]. Females are more likely to disperse from their natal troops in comparison to males as they seek a group of optimal size and an appropriate protector silverback. This dispersal helps to reduce the frequency of inbreeding and increase genetic variation[8].

Endangerment Status

Mountain gorillas are classified as Endangered by the International Union of the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as of 2018[3]. The species previously qualified as Critically Endangered and due to a current increase in population and the most recent surveys estimating that there are now at least 1004 individuals, the IUCN changed their status to Endangered[3]. However, both the quality and quantity of available habitat are projected to continue to decline due to anthropogenic threats[3]. Mountain gorillas are the only great apes with an increasing population trend, however, they remain a conservation-dependent species that require continuous protection and habitat management to survive[4].

Threats

Mountain gorilla habitat impacted by habitat degradation

Despite protection laws and a growing population, mountain gorillas continue to face many challenges that threaten their livelihood and existence, including but not limited to habitat disturbance, habitat degradation and destruction, climate change, disease, poaching, sociopolitical instability, commercial activities, and growing human population pressure[3][6]. Habitat disturbance and intrusion include many actions, including but not limited to ecotourism. Some other disturbances include conservation and scientific work, collection of timber and other products for use and commercial sale, and camps for security forces[3]. Any human presence in mountain gorilla habitat poses some risk of either disturbance or harm[3]. Disease poses a unique threat as it can be passed from humans to gorillas due to high genetic relatedness, and their disease susceptibility is only increasing with more frequent interaction with humans, clustered distribution of the species due to habitat degradation, and the widening distribution of disease due to climate change[3][6]. Another threat due to the positive growth rate and no additional space to expand into, mainly due to habitat degradation and human development, is that the species may reach their carrying capacity meaning the natural limit of a population set by available resources in their environment[5]. Climate change poses an increasingly detrimental threat towards mountain gorillas as they possess a number of traits that make them vulnerable to a changing climate[3]. They have a very small population and a highly restricted range of habitat limiting their dispersal ability, making it difficult for them to adapt to climate-related changes to their environment[6]. Additionally, they face a long generation time, a low reproductive rate, and low amounts of genetic variation as a result of a limited gene pool, all of which make it more difficult for the species to adapt to rapid changes to their habitat[6].

Ecotourism Initiatives

History

Historically, tourism initiatives executed by State actors and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in Rwanda have produced positive impacts, namely supporting the country’s economy. Ecotourism specifically is the third most important foreign exchange earner in Rwanda[9]. Mountain gorilla tourism is centred in the Virunga mountain range, which is shared by Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Ecotourism initiatives have shifted from top-down approaches, like government policy agreements to “bottom-up” approaches, community-level conservation[10].

Digit the mountain gorilla

The rise in illegal poaching of mountain gorillas began in 1976, spiked by an interest in keeping gorilla parts as souvenirs[11]. The president at the time, Major-General Juvenal Habyarimana, took an interest in conserving gorillas in the Parc National des Volcans. Widespread attention to the cause began in February 1978, when the TV celebrity Digit the mountain gorilla was killed[11]. These factors incited the first wave of conservation initiatives in the country[11].

In 1978 The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) appealed to the public for funds for the protection of mountain gorillas, promoted by the Sunday Times[11]. The campaign was successful: FPS collected nearly £8000[11]. Due to the positive response from the public, the FPS launched the Mountain Gorilla Project in 1979. FPS and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) first conducted a study assessing the state of conservation in Parc National des Volcans. This paper listed several recommendations made by the FPS and Rwanda Development Board (RDB), formerly known as the Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux (ORTPN)[11]. These recommendations included constructing extra buildings, implementing material additions to enforce the boundaries of the park, increasing guards in the park, equipping guards and park guides with technology and training, increasing the number of gorilla group populations, publicizing the park to local and international audiences, and conducting research within the park[11]. Each recommendation would be realized after this report, with the transboundary cooperation of Rwanda, Uganda, and the DRC[11]. Conflict in Rwanda, namely the civil war and the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, impacted the lives of everyone in the country, and conservation initiatives were sidelined. The conservation of mountain gorillas in Rwanda became successful when the country became more secure, stability developed, and the government committed to developing the tourism industry[11].

Timeline

Below is a timeline of the major changes in policy regarding mountain gorilla tourism, as well as major milestones in the conservation movement for gorillas from 1979 to 2009[12].

1979: Mountain Gorilla Project

1989: Volcanoes National Park and the Parc National des Volcans (PNV) records 6,900 tourists

1994: NGO International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)

1995: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is ratified in Rwanda

2001: A Tourism Working Group

2002: Rwanda Tourism Strategy (later revised in 2007)

2003: National Strategy and Action Plan for Conservation of Biodiversity is adopted

2005: Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) is established under the Organic Law on Environment Protection and Management; Revenue sharing is implemented in Rwanda: 5% goes towards communities by the RBD

2006: National Tourism Policy (later revised in 2009); Virunga Transboundary Strategic Plan

2008: National Forestry Authority (NAFA) was founded

2009: Sustainable Tourism Master Plan

Positive Impacts of Ecotourism

Population growth

Group of young, 2-year-old, mountain gorillas

The impact that ecotourism has had on the mountain gorilla population of Rwanda has been extremely positive. Between 2010 and 2016, populations grew about 3% each year[13], showing a positive trend for their numbers with a population of 639 individuals, as of 2020[13]. This increase in population size is likely linked to ecotourism, as the gorillas have safer spaces to reproduce and raise their offspring with less risk of negative human contact[13]. Additionally, when compared to other Great Ape subspecies, mountain gorillas are the only subspecies that have increasing populations, in fact, all others are declining[13]. In regards to mountain gorilla population growth efforts, it is showing a clear sign of success as this species is improving in comparison to its closest relatives[13]. Overall, this concept can be beneficial to ecotourism strategies and can be applied to other threatened species in the future.

Revenue Generation

The revenue that has been gained from ecotourism within Rwanda has been impactful to the country’s economy. Ecotourism is the number one source of income for Rwanda and continues to out-weigh other revenue sectors[2]. This revenue is still increasing and has the potential for even more growth. For comparison, in Rwanda, 2005 saw US $26 million in revenue, while 2008 saw US $200 million[2]; nearly a US $174 million increase in only three years. It is unclear which conservation strategies were used specifically during these years, but nonetheless, they made important impacts on Rwanda’s economy. In 1998, following a civil war, Rwanda faced economic hardships as tourism within the country was put on hold while government orders were sorted through. When ecotourism was able to pick up again in 1998, ecotourism helped Rwanda gain steady ground again[2]. Tourism within this country is nonetheless vital to its economy, and the number of tourists visiting it are only increasing. From 1994 to 2015, Rwanda has attracted 271,438 tourists and has made US $108,887,192[2]. In 2019, mountain gorilla tourism generated US $107.3 million, or about 21.5 percent of total tourism revenues, with the majority going to accommodation, food and beverage and transportation. The mountain gorilla permits alone accounted for about 22 percent of the gorilla tourism revenue (US $24 million) in 2019, and nearly 86 percent of total tourism permit income from PAs in the country[14]. These enormous numbers have helped the economy stay afloat and ensure projects like mountain gorilla conservation can continue.

Negative Impacts of Ecotourism and Challenges

Behavioural Change and Increased Stress

Mother and baby mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda.

Mountain gorillas tend to show signs of stress during tourist visits such as increased scratching and social buffering, especially when they are close to large tourist groups[15]. Mountain gorillas have been observed to avoid tourists when approached by them[15]. Given that, mountain gorillas usually increase inter-group proximity to enhance their vigilance in the presence of threats[15]. The response of mountain gorillas to the presence and excessive proximity of tourists indicates that they might perceive tourists as a threat. Therefore, it can be inferred that ecotourism has negatively impacted the mental health of mountain gorillas, particularly their sense of safety[15]. The frequent presence of tourist groups has disrupted their natural behaviours and caused them to experience increased discomfort[15].

Risk of disease transmission

Mountain gorilla and child in close proximity, increasing risk of disease transmission

When it comes to the impact of ecotourism, zoonotic respiratory pathogens transmitted between tourists and mountain gorillas are of particular concern[16]. As a result of their close genetic relationship and susceptibility to the same pathogens, there is increased risk of pathogen transmission between humans and mountain gorillas[16]. In a recent study, respiratory illness in mountain gorillas accounts for approximately 25% of investigated mortalities and is the second leading cause of death[16].

Tourists visiting wild mountain gorillas do not always recognize or report their disease symptoms[15]. Tourists may be asymptomatic during their visit, and thus unaware of potential transmission risks that are likely to impact mountain gorillas. In response to the presence of tourists, mountain gorillas tend to stay more closely together to feel safer[17]. As a consequence, transmission of respiratory infections within gorilla groups becomes more rapid[18]. Additionally, international tourists visiting Rwanda may be carrying viruses new to the region, such as influenza[18]. New viruses carried by tourists are especially dangerous to mountain gorillas. Since mountain gorillas have never been exposed to these viruses in their natural habitat, they may be more susceptible to new illnesses[18].

Economic challenges

Ecotourism in Rwanda faces competition from other destinations for gorilla viewing due to potential limits on expansion of revenues from gorilla trekking. One approach to preserving gorilla habitats and populations has been to restrict the number of gorilla trekking permits issued[14]. However, when the opportunity for increasing gorilla trekking permits is limited, tourists tend to only take short leisure trips to Rwanda while staying longer in neighbouring countries[14]. For instance, in 2017, Rwanda Development Board (RDB) implemented a new high-end tourism strategy that doubled the permit cost to US $1,500. After the change in permit cost in Rwanda, research data shows an increase in both the number and proportion of available gorilla permits sold in Uganda, which rose by 23 percent in 2018[14]. Meanwhile, there was a decrease in numbers and percentage of gorilla permits sold in Rwanda [14]. Evidence suggests that tourists have been shifting their gorilla viewing plans to Uganda and reducing their overall length of stay in Rwanda[14]. To remain competitive, it would be challenging to further increase the price of the gorilla permits in Rwanda without similar coordinated increases in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo[14].

There are other economic factors constraining ecotourism growth in Rwanda. A decline in the economic condition of surrounding communities in Rwanda exacerbates pressures on protected areas[14]. External factors, such as infectious disease emergencies, can result in the dramatic decline in demand for ecotourism[14]. Climate change, which leads to warming temperatures in tropical areas, is also likely to reduce the demand for ecotourism [14].

Conclusion

The mountain gorillas of Rwanda are a precious species that are actively being taken care of in regards to their fight to achieve a stable population. As the only great ape species with an increasing number in the wild, mountain gorillas rely on conservation to maintain their habitat and populations. In Rwanda, ecotourism has successfully provided mountain gorillas a safe environment for growth and reproduction, while being an important source of revenue. In recent years, a shift toward community-based strategies has expanded the potential for ecotourism. In an attempt to rebuild this population, these efforts have worked tirelessly to ultimately save this species. However, mountain gorillas are still of endangered status. Factors such as habitat degradation, climate change, disease and poaching continue to pose threats to their population. As tourist visits can disrupt mountain gorillas’ daily behaviours and spread new diseases, the negative impact of ecotourism on mountain gorilla conservation cannot be overlooked. To further support conservation and the local economy, Rwanda has planned to increase the price of the gorilla permits, yet risking a competitive disadvantage over other trekking destinations. Overall, the benefits and drawbacks of ecotourism as a means of protection for the mountain gorillas of Rwanda have been explored and the ultimate future of this species is still undetermined. Through ecotourism, this species may have the potential to recover from population threats, but this idea is still inconclusive and has much work to get done before it is decided as the ultimate salvation for this species.

Future Outlook

As mountain gorillas spread out and search for more habitat, they are more likely to interact with local communities[19]. To prepare for this issue, the Government of Rwanda has partnered with AWF and World Bank to add more hectares of afromontane habitat for Rwanda’s mountain gorillas, thereby boosting viewing opportunities for tourists, and support an increase in gorilla numbers[19][20]. Expanding protected areas, such as Rwandaʼs Volcanoes National Park, involves the resettling of communities from reclaimed land[19]. It is important for conservation initiatives to provide meaningful benefits to local communities and enable them to become stewards of the natural environment[19].

To address the economic challenges of ecotourism in Rwanda, it is important to increase tourist arrivals and length of stay by diversifying destinations and attractions while promoting a more sustainable, inclusive, and competitive tourism industry[14]. Strategies need to be developed on a national level to ensure that the benefits of tourism activities are more widely distributed, creating jobs in rural areas while protecting Rwanda’s biodiversity, preserving natural resources, and enhancing resilience to climate change[14]. If these challenges can be successfully addressed in the future, ecotourism in Rwanda can continue to thrive, supporting the wellbeing of mountain gorillas and the local community.

References

  1. ↑ Wood, Megan Epler (2002). "Ecotourism: Principles, practices and policies for sustainability" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme: 9.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Sabuhoro, Edwin; Wright, Brett; Munanura, Ian; Nyonza Nyakabwa, Ingrid; Nibigira, Carmen (2017). "The potential of ecotourism opportunities to generate support for mountain gorilla conservation among local communities neighboring Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda". Journal of Ecotourism. 20: 1–17.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 Hickey, J.R.; Basabose, A.; Gilardi, K.V.; Greer, D.; Nampindo, S.; Robbins, M.M.; Stoinski, T.S. (2020). "Gorilla beringei ssp. beringei (amended version of 2018 assessment)". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Mountain Gorilla". World Wildlife Fund.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Grueter, Cyril; Ndamiyabo, Ferdinand; Plumptre, Andrew; Abavandimwe, Didier; Mundry, Roger; Fawcett, Katie; Robbins, Martha (2012). "Long-Term Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Food Availability for Endangered Mountain Gorillas in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda". American Journal of Primatology. 75: 267–280.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Advani, Nikhil (2014). "WWF Wildlife and Climate Change Series: Mountain gorilla". World Wildlife Fund.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Leeds, Austin; Kakule, Dalmas; Stalter, Laura; Mbeke, Jackson; Fawcett, Katie (2024). "Group structure and individual relationships of sanctuary-living Grauer's gorillas (gorilla Beringei Graueri)". PLOS ONE. 19.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Robbins, Martha; Robbins, Andrew (2018). "Variation in the social organization of Gorillas: Life History and Socioecological Perspectives". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 27: 218–233.
  9. ↑ Weber, A.W. (1987). Socioecological factors in the conservation of Afromontane Forest Reserves. New York: Primate conservation in the tropical rain forests. pp. 205–229.
  10. ↑ Stern, M.J.; Margoluis, C; Lanfer, A.G.; Goodale, U.M. "Transboundary Protected Areas: The Viability of Regional Conservation Strategies". Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 17(1/2): 1–6.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Harcourt, A.H. (1979). "The Mountain Gorilla Project: a Progress Report". Oryx. 15: 10–11 – via Cambridge.
  12. ↑ Maekawa, M.; Lanjouw, A.; Sharp, D. (E.). "Mountain gorilla tourism generating wealth and peace in post-conflict Rwanda". National Resources Forum – via Wiley. |first3= missing |last3= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Granjon, A.C.; Robbins, M.M.; Arinaitwe, J.; Cranfield, M.R.; Eckardt, W.; Mburanumwe, I.; Musana, A.; Robbins, A.M.; Roy, J. (2020). "Estimating abundance and growth rates in a wild mountain gorilla population". Zoological Society of London. 23: 455–465 – via UBC Library.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 "Rwanda Economic Update: Making the most of Nature Based Tourism in Rwanda" (PDF). World Bank Group. February 2023. Retrieved 4 Dec 2024.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Costa, Raquel F. P.; Romano, Valéria; Pereira, André S.; Hart, Jordan D. A.; MacIntosh, Andrew; Hayashi, Misato (11 December 2022). "Mountain gorillas benefit from social distancing too: Close proximity from tourists affects gorillas' sociality". Conservation Science and Practice. 5 (1): e12859 – via Society Conservation Biology.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Mazet, Jonna A. K.; Genovese, Brooke N.; Harris, Laurie A.; Cranfield, Michael; Noheri, Jean Bosco; Kinani, Jean Felix; Zimmerman, Dawn; Bahizi, Methode; Mudakikwa, Antoine (20 December 2020). "Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Detected in Mountain Gorilla Respiratory Outbreaks". EcoHealth. 17: 449–460 – via Springer Nature Link.CS1 maint: display-authors (link)
  17. ↑ Plumtpre, Andrew J.; Williamson, Elizabeth A. (16 March 2010). "Conservation-oriented research in the Virunga region". Mountain Gorillas: 361–390 – via Cambridge University Press.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Morrison, Robin E.; Mushimiyimana, Yvonne; Stoinski, Tara S.; Eckardt, Winnie (07 October 2021). "Rapid transmission of respiratory infections within but not between mountain gorilla groups". Scientific Reports. 11: 19622 – via Scientific Reports. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Benimana, Christian; Mutangana, Eugene (Oct 21, 2024). "How sustainable tourism helps protect mountain gorillas in Rwanda and strengthens communities". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 5 Dec 2024.
  20. ↑ Sehmi, Harleen (March 21, 2022). "More habitat for Rwanda's mountain gorillas means a better life for all". African Wildlife Foundation. Retrieved 5 Dec 2024.


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