Course:CONS200/2023WT2/What’s for dinner tonight? Exploring prey preferences of the Ghost of the Mountains (Snow Leopard - Panthera uncia)

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Introduction

Snow leopard on snowy ledge.
Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) on snowy ledge

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) are the smallest of the cats within the genus Panthera and occupy an extensive mountainous range in Central Asia.[1] They occupy the alpine zone in the Himalayas, at 3000-5000 m, between the snow line and tree line.[2] There is no consensus on the snow leopard population size due to the remoteness of the terrain and poorly understood behaviours of snow leopards.[3] The population is estimated to be from around 3020–5390 to 4678–8745 individuals.[4] China contains approximately half of the snow leopard population and the Tibetan Plateau contains approximately a third.[3][4] From 1972 to 2016, snow leopards were classified as “endangered” on the IUCN Red List and amended to “vulnerable” in 2017.[4] Much is still unknown about snow leopard ranges and populations, as only 4% of potential snow leopard ranges have been reliably surveyed.[4][5]

Map: Snow leopard range (2017)
Map: Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) range (2017)

Snow leopards play an important role in their ecosystems as the apex predator.[6] As the apex predator, they are the predominant regulators of predator and prey populations, as well as the entirety of the ecosystem function.[6] However, due to the commercial value of snow leopard pelts, their predation on livestock, and climate impacts on Central Asian, snow leopard's are increasingly becoming vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances and the changing ecosystem structure.[7][8][2]

Traditional Prey

Snow leopard’s traditional and preferred prey are wild ungulates (large mammals with hooves), small mammals, birds, and vegetation.[1]

Ibex, Sheep, and Other Ungulates

The top four animals found in snow leopard feces in a study were (in order of significance) Siberian ibex, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep, and argali.[9] A discrete breakdown of snow leopard diet is nearly impossible to generalize across the whole populations, as the snow leopard's range is extensive and natural populations of these key prey species vary considerably throughout.[8] As such, there is no singularly important important prey species for snow leopards.[9] One 2012 study from South Gobi, Mongolia, that analyzed snow leopard feces provided the following breakdown of diet: Siberian ibex (70.4%), domestic goat (17.3%), and argali sheep (8.6%).[10] Broadly, large ungulates made up 98.8% of the feces.[10] In a 2014 study that combined 21 studies from across the snow leopard's range provided the following breakdown of diet: argali sheep (12.71%), Siberian ibex (12.69%), cattle and yak (9.6%), blue sheep (9.45%), and Himalayan tahr (7.98%).[9] Only 52.43% of the diet comprised of large ungulates, with the rest coming from supplementary food sources.[9] The most supported claim for snow leopard prey across the entire range is that natural prey make up around 75% of their diet, while livestock make up 25% (though this varies considerably).[9][1][11]

Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) are one ungulate prey species of the snow leopard

Additional Food Sources

Supplementary food sources for snow leopard include marmots, hares, birds, insects, and vegetation.[1] Supplementary food sources, also known as secondary prey, contribute to a fraction of the snow leopard's diet due to a variety of temporal and nutritional reasons.[12] Long-tailed marmots, for example, hibernate for eight months of the year, reducing their overall availability and reliability to snow leopards as an alternate food source.[12] Pikas weigh around 350g and, like other small mammals, provide little nutritional value relative to ungulates.[1] Feather grass was found in 18% of 50 scat samples collected in Mongolia; twigs were present in 58% of 50 scat samples collected in Ladakh, India; and both vegetation and twigs made up 2.2-11% of scat collected in 4 sites throughout China.[1] Snow leopards are unable to digest cellulose and so it is likely that some chemical components of plants aid in digestive process, rather than providing actual nutritional value.[1]

Prey Size and Kill Frequency

Adult snow leopards weigh from 43-52kg (males weigh more than females).[13] Snow leopards are able to kill prey up to 5 times their own weight, meaning they can hunt an ungulate up to 260kg.[13] They are unlikely to kill a wild ungulate above 250kg, but will kill livestock above that threshold.[13] On average, snow leopards kill an ungulate every 8 days.[11] Males kill larger prey but at a lower frequency than females.[11]

Anthropogenic Influences and Threats

Poaching

The pelt of a poached snow leopard

Snow leopards have no natural predators, except humans.[14] Human development and expansion into the snow leopard's natural habitat have affected both snow leopard populations and their prey populations.[15] Historically, snow leopards have been displaced due to illegal trafficking of their fur to make coats and other luxury fashion items and the animal itself to keep as an exotic pet worldwide, but increasing settlement encroachment is becoming more of an issue.[15] Once the snow leopard trade was banned in 1975, poaching accounted for 21% of investigated snow leopard deaths in 2016, with the rest relating to retaliatory attacks after the death of livestock or accidental snare catches.[3][16]

Habitat Encroachment

The sharp increase in livestock in Asia within the past few decades has led to livestock encroaching into protected areas where both snow leopards and wild ungulates live.[17] Most habitat encroachment comes in the form of grazing pasture, but human settlements have also significantly increased.[18] Together, human settlements and agricultural area (does not include potential grazing ranges used by nomadic herders) occupied 1506 hectares in 2008, increasing by 115% to 3240 hectares in 2015.[18] The continual expansion of pastureland not only diminishes the available area of wild ungulates (snow leopard's primary prey) but also increases the frequency of snow leopard and livestock interactions and killing.[3]

Livestock

A livestock corral in Ladakh, India has been retrofitted by the Snow Leopard Conservancy India Trust to prevent snow leopards from attacking livestock

As snow leopard territory is further encroached upon by livestock, possible encounters between the two increase.[11] However, several studies have indicated that even in areas dominated by livestock, snow leopards actively avoid them and choose wild ungulates as their primary food source.[11]

Where there is significant livestock present, on average, 27% of snow leopard prey are livestock and 73% are wild ungulates.[1] This indicates a specific preference for wild prey, as livestock hugely outnumber wild ungulates; for example, in Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, livestock density is 29.7 animals km2 while blue sheep density is 2.6 km2.[8] Snow leopard concentrate their hunting in areas with high predation success but low prey density.[19] As a result, snow leopard avoid anthropogenic disturbances such as corrals, and only prey opportunistically on livestock (such as a straggling or abandoned sheep) or when wild prey is scarce (winter and dry springs).[19][11]

Despite the proven avoidance by snow leopards, as livestock populations increase rapidly, there has been an increase in predation of livestock by snow leopards.[20] Around 75% of livestock deaths (by wild animals) have been attributed to snow leopards.[20] There has been some discussion about implementing different measurements to avoid the attacks of snow leopards on livestock, such as retrofitting livestock corrals to better protect livestock.[20]

Attacks by snow leopards towards livestock in small communities across the Himalayas has led to economic loss.[21] Surveys have been done to estimate the risk zones in the Himalayan communities affected by the predation of livestock by snow leopards.[21] For example, one survey determined 13.64 km2 of the surveyed area was marked as risk zones for livestock predation.[21]

Experiments have been performed in planned conservation zones where livestock are prohibited in the area and are surveyed by vigilant herders.[22] Snow leopards living in the area reduced their livestock predation by 17%, while other snow leopards living outside the surveyed areas increased their livestock predation by 16% over 5 years.[22]

Climate Change

Receding glaciers in Zanskar, India, part of the Himalayas and within the snow leopard range

The current range of snow leopards is highly fragmented due to both the heterogeneous landscape, extreme topography, and variety of dispersed settlements.[23] For instance, two large habitat ranges – the Pamir and Altai mountains – are fragmented by 3 railways and newly built highways.[24] 35% of the current range of snow leopards are expected to remain suitable habitats in future climate change scenarios.[25] Habitat is expected to shift upwards by 100 meters and northwest by 200 km.[2] However, there is more available habitat higher in elevation than in the northwest, so snow leopards are expected to primarily move upwards.[2] By 2070, suitable snow leopard habitat is expected to decrease by 23% and become 30% more fragmented.[25]

Both snow leopards and blue sheep currently share a similar range in Nepal: 15.32% of Nepal is suitable habitat for snow leopards and 15.93% is suitable habitat for blue sheep.[26] However, as snow leopard ranges shift up in elevation in future climates, there will be a lower overlap and higher mismatch between snow leopard and blue sheep niches.[26] Although total suitable habitat area for snow leopards in Nepal is not expected to shrink greatly, predicted actual range is expected to be smaller than previously expected due to prey ranges shifting differently than snow leopard ranges.[26]

Ecological Significance

Role as an Apex Predator

Snow leopard (Panthera Uncia) bears teeth

Snow leopards are apex predators of the harsh Himalayan environment, characterized by its extreme altitudes and low energy levels.[26]

Being an apex predator, snow leopards are not naturally preyed upon by any species.[26] Snow leopards play a crucial role in top-down ecosystem regulation by moderating their prey populations, thus maintaining the structure of essential life-supporting plant communities at the bottom trophic level of the ecosystem.[27]

Predator-Prey Relationship Dynamics

Camera trapping data indicates that, in areas occupied by prey species like ibex and blue sheep, snow leopards are detected at a higher frequency.[27] Contrarily, those same prey species are five times less frequently detected in areas where the snow leopard was detected first.[27] These links indicate interspecies population and behaviour dynamics between snow leopards and their prey.[27]

For instance, monitoring data indicates that while snow leopards are more active in the early morning and evening hours, ibex are more active in the later morning and blue sheep are more active in the afternoon.[27] Furthermore, while snow leopards are found most commonly in open, barren areas, ibex preferentially occupy grasslands or other areas with plant cover throughout the summer and autumn months when there is enough snowmelt to permit it.[27]

The prey’s disposition can be described as species-specific anti-predatory behaviour, wherein snow leopards are actively avoided by their prey.[27] This supports the landscape of fear hypothesis, which describes the prey species' habitats as deliberately avoiding the areas most heavily frequented by predator species.[27] Ultimately, these predator-prey dynamics are what permit the snow leopard and its prey to coexist.[27]

Role as an Indicator Species for Climate Change and Ecosystem Health

The Great Himalayan National Park, a protected area located in the Indian Himachal Pradesh state and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This biodiversity hotspot serves as a refuge for local snow leopard populations

Snow leopards have evolved to survive in an extreme alpine environment with harsh conditions. As such, snow leopard population numbers and health serve as an indicator of the broader health of their ecosystem and the resulting effects of climate change on that ecosystem. [28]

Simulations using the IPCC greenhouse gas emission scenarios suggest that warming temperatures could raise the elevation of the tree line within the Himalayan mountains, thus decreasing the range of the alpine zone, particularly along the southern edge and within river valleys.[29] In this scenario, roughly 30% of snow leopard habitat within the Himalayan mountains would be lost, which would increase the intensity of existing population threats such as livestock grazing and retaliatory killing, thus contributing to further decline of snow leopard population.[29] As such, the state of snow leopard population can serve as a proxy for the impacts of climate change and the health of their ecosystem. [28]

Conservation Efforts

Methodology and Human Conflicts

A snow leopard in the snow

A mere 14%-19% of the snow leopard habitat range is comprised of protected areas, roughly 40% of those areas are also smaller than the required range for a single adult snow leopard. [30]Due to the increased habitat development, loss, and increasing multi-use landscapes, cohabitation between snow leopards and human pastoralists is increasingly viewed as the most viable approach towards conservation of their populations.[30] With a land-sharing approach, rather than a land-sparing approach being favoured.[30] However, due to the harsh conditions across much of the population range coexistence with humans is often problematic with human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) between snow leopards and livestock becoming a more common occurrence.[31] With escalating HWC between pastoralists and snow leopards, there are often retaliatory killings following the predation of livestock.[31] An estimated 221-450 snow leopards are killed annually by humans with approximately half of those being retaliatory killings by humans suffering from livestock predation.[30]

The harsh ranges and sparse population densities of humans and leopards alike also mean that the boundaries of protected areas are frequently disregarded by pastoralists seeking retribution for livestock predation, leading to snow leopards getting killed both inside and outside of conservation zones.[31] In recent years, there have been many initiatives to try to slow the rate of retaliatory killings.[31] Initiatives that are currently being applied include predator proofing livestock pens, compensation for the loss of livestock due to snow leopards, and restoration of wild prey species populations, to name a few.[31] With one of the main driving factors of livestock depredation being the lack of sufficient wild prey, a peaceful coexistence between humans and snow leopards is contingent on conservation strategies such as anti-poaching measures and habitat restoration for prey species.[31]

Research History

Example of an animal radio tracking collar

The first snow leopard-specific study was conducted in the 1970s, with more studies following in the decades after. During the Cold War it was difficult to obtain satellite or aerial imagery to track the habits of snow leopards and thus field research was the norm during that period.[32] These surveys included information gathering on many things from local sightings to tracks.[32] However, the identification of snow leopard prey tended to be the most practical way of gathering information on snow leopards.[32] Identification of prey species and individual prey provided researchers with information on life history and population range of snow leopards.[32] In 1982 five snow leopards were radio-collared and monitored, this study was critical to developing a clearer understanding into snow leopard prey preferences, along with other crucial information such as habitat, activity, and range.[32]

Conclusion

As the apex predator throughout the specific high altitude niche in central Asia, snow leopards are integral to regulating ecosystem functions.[27] Anthropogenic disturbances threaten to destabilize predator-prey relationships, reduce suitable ranges for snow leopards and their prey, and reduce snow leopard populations.[1][18][2] With the rise of these disturbances and human-snow leopard conflict, conservation methods have needed to be implemented to encourage healthy wild prey populations.[1] Historical conservation has included practices such as radio tracking specific individuals, creating protected areas, and implementing more security around villages and livestock pens.[32][22][20] Despite several decades of such conservation methods, a new cohabitation program has been prioritized.[30] As climate shifts and humans settlements expand, managing snow leopards and all their various wild prey species into singular protected areas is not possible, so building relationships between humans and snow leopards is essential to the preservation of their ability to rely on wild prey throughout their range, in turn maintaining healthy snow leopard populations.[25]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 McCarthy, Thomas; Mallon, David; Nyhus, Philip J (2016). Snow Leopards. London: Academic Press. pp. 3, 18–19, 48–49. ISBN 978-0-12-802213-9.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Li, Xinhai; Ma, Liming; Hu, Dazhi; Ma, Duifang; Li, Renqiang; Sun, Yuehua; Gao, Erhu (2022). "Potential Range Shift of Snow Leopard in Future Climate Change Scenarios". Sustainability. 14 (3) – via MDPI.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Kindlmann, Pavel (2022). Snow leopards in Nepal: predator-prey system on the top of the world. Cham: Springer. pp. v. ISBN 978-3-031-11355-0.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Bian, Xiaoxing; Liang, Xuchang; Weckworth, Byron; Jyal, Dorje; Hull, Vanessa; Yang, Le (2023). "Spatial density estimate of the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, in the Central Tibetan Plateau, China". Integrative Zoology. 18 (4) – via Wiley Online Library.
  5. ↑ Sharma, Rishi K (2021). "[Commentary] Estimating population of world's snow leopards". Mongabay-India. Archived from the original on Mar. 7, 2024. Retrieved Mar. 7, 2024. Check date values in: |access-date=, |archive-date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Angelici, Francesco Maria; Rossi, Lorenzo (2020). Problematic Wildlife II: New Conservation and Management Challenges in the Human-Wildlife Interactions. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-030-42334-6.
  7. ↑ McKenna, Phil (2009). "One Minute With… Peter Zahler". New Scientist. 204 – via MAS Ultra - School Edition.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Bagchi, S; Mishra, C (2006). "Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia)". Journal of Zoology. 268 (3) – via Wiley.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Lyngdoh, Salvador; Shrotriya, Shivam; Goyal, Surendra P; Clements, Hayley; Hayward, Matthew W; Habib, Bilal; Sueur, Cédric (2014). "Prey Preferences of the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia): Regional Diet Specificity Holds Global Significance for Conservation". PLoS ONE. 9 (2) – via PLOS ONE.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Shehzad, Wasim; McCarthy, Thomas Michael; Pompanon, Francois; Purevjav, Lkhagvajav; Coissac, Eric; Riaz, Tiayyba; Taberlet, Pierre; DeSalle, Robert (2012). "Prey Preference of Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) in South Gobi, Mongolia". PLoS ONE. 7 (2) – via PLUS ONE.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Johansson, Örjan; McCarthy, Tom; Samelius, Gustaf; Andrén, Henrik; Tumursukh, Lkhagvasumberel; Mishra, Charadutt (April 2015). "Snow leopard predation in a livestock dominated landscape in Mongolia". Biological Conservation. 184: 251–258.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Tytar, Volodymyr; Hammer, Matthias; Asykulov, Tolkunbek (2019). "Distribution modeling of the long-tailed marmot (Marmota caudata) for objectives of directing field surveys and ground validation of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat quality". Theriologia Ukrainica. 18: 101–107. doi:10.15407/pts2019.18.101 – via DOAJ.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Krofel, Miha; Groff, Claudio; Oberosler, Valentina; Augugliaro, Claudio; Rovero, Francesco (2021). "Snow leopard (Panthera uncia) predation and consumption of an adult yak in the Mongolian Altai". Ethology Ecology & Evolution. 33 (6) – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  14. ↑ World Wildlife Fund (Accessed March 10, 2024). "Snow Leopard". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 IUCN Red List (Accessed March 10, 2024). "Snow Leopard". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ↑ "An ounce of prevention: Snow leopard crime revisited". Traffic. October 21, 2016. Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  17. ↑ Salvatori, Marco; Tenan, Simone; Oberosler, Valentina; Augugliaro, Claudio; Christe, Philippe; Groff, Claudio; Krofel, Miha; Zimmermann, Fridolin; Rovero, Francesco (2021). "Co-occurrence of snow leopard, wolf and Siberian ibex under livestock encroachment into protected areas across the Mongolian Altai". Biological Conservation. 261 – via Elsevier.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Rashid, Wajid; Shi, Jianbin; Rahim, Inam ur; Qasim, Muhammad; Baloch, Muhammad Naveed; Bohnett, Eve; Yang, Fangyuan; Khan, Imran; Ahmad, Bilal (2021). "Modelling Potential Distribution of Snow Leopards in Pamir, Northern Pakistan: Implications for Human–Snow Leopard Conflicts". Sustainability. 13 (23) – via MDPI.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Li, Jiaxin; Shi, Xiaogang; He, Xingcheng; Li, Dongrui; Hu, Qiang; Zhang, Yanni; Ran, Jianghong (2023). "Free‐ranging livestock affected the spatiotemporal behavior of the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia)". Ecology and Evolution. 13 (4) – via Wiley.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Aryal, Achyut; Brunton, Dianne; Ji, Weihong; Barraclough, Rosemary K; Raubenheimer, David (2014). "Human–carnivore conflict: ecological and economical sustainability of predation on livestock by snow leopard and other carnivores in the Himalaya". Sustainability Science. 9 (3) – via Springer.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Karki, Ajay; Panthi, Saroj (2021). "Factors affecting livestock depredation by snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in the Himalayan region of Nepal". PeerJ. 9 – via PeerJ.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Bagchi, Sumanta; Sharma, Rishi K; Bhatnagar, Yash V (2020). "Change in snow leopard predation on livestock after revival of wild prey in the Trans-Himalaya". Wildlife Biology. doi:10.2981/wlb.00583 – via BioOne Digital Library.
  23. ↑ Riordan, Philip; Cushman, Samuel A.; Mallon, David; Shi, Kun; Hughes, Joelene (2016). "Predicting global population connectivity and targeting conservation action for snow leopard across its range". Ecography. 39 (5) – via Wiley.
  24. ↑ Li, Juan; Weckworth, Byron V; McCarthy, Thomas M; Liang, Xuchuang; Liu, Yanlin; Xing, Rui; Li, Diqiang; Zhang, Yuguang; Xue, Yadong (2020). "Defining priorities for global snow leopard conservation landscapes". Biological Conservation. 241 – via Elsevier.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Li, Juan; McCarthy, Thomas M; Wang, Hao; Weckworth, Byron V; Schaller, George B; Mishra, Charudutt; Lu, Zhi; Beissinger, Steven R (2016). "Climate refugia of snow leopards in High Asia". Biological Conservation. 203. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.026 – via Elsevier.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Aryal, Achyut; Shrestha, Uttam Babu; Ji, Weihong; Ale, Som B.; Shrestha, Sujata; Ingty, Tenzing; Maraseni, Tek; Cockfield, Geoff; Raubenheimer, David (May 2016). "Predicting the distributions of predator (snow leopard) and prey (blue sheep) under climate change in the Himalaya". Ecology and Evolution. 6: 4065–4075.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 Sharief, Amira; Kumar, Vineet; Singh, Hermant; Mukherjee, Tanoy; Dutta, Ritam; Joshi, Bheem Dutt; Bhattacharjee, Saurav; Ramesh, Chinnasamy; Chandra, Kailash (July 2022). "Landscape use and co-occurrence pattern of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and its prey species in the fragile ecosystem of Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh". PLoS ONE. 17: e0271556.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 World Wildlife Fund (Accessed April 14, 2023). "Snow Leopard". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Forrest, J.L.; Wikramanayake, E.; Shrestha, R.; Areendran, G.; Gyeltshen, K.; Maheshwari, A.; Mazumdar, S.; Naidoo, R.; Thapa, G.J. (2012). "Conservation and climate change: Assessing the vulnerability of snow leopard habitat to treeline shift in the Himalaya". Biological Conservation. 150 (1): 129–135 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Sharma R. K. and Singh R. 2020. Over 100 Years of Snow Leopard Research: A Spatially Explicit Review of the State of Knowledge in the Snow Leopard Range. WWF, Gland, Switzerland.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 Jackson, Rodney (19 May 2015). "HWC Ten Years Later: Successes and Shortcomings of Approaches to Global Snow Leopard Conservation". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 20: 310–316 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 Hunter, Don; McCarthy, Kyle; McCarthy, Thomas (2016). "Snow Leopard Research: A Historical Perspective". Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes: 345–353 – via Elsevier Science Direct.


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