Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Nomads of Nepal: Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Livelihood Challenges for the Raute Community of Nepal

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Introduction

The Raute people are a nomadic community indigenous to Nepal with a unique language, culture, and lifestyle.[1] They prefer to live in high-mountain regions during monsoon season and migrate to riverbanks and fallow land in the dry seasons.[2] The duration of their stay depends on the availability of food, a lifestyle which allows for the regeneration of flora and fauna after the tribe has moved on to their next location.[2] The survival of the Raute people and their traditional knowledge dependent upon the forest ecosystems within which they live.[3] Though following a patriarchal model, women possess the knowledge and responsibility to source water, identify medical herbs, and gather firewood and vegetation for sustenance.[2] The Raute face many challenges to the continuation of their unique livelihood. Regarding forest laws, the Raute have been affected by a number of policies since the 1950s, leading to a constant threat of dispossession of territory through forestry and protected lands.[2] Climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss has led to the deterioration of quality and quantity of the subsistence services the forest provides.[4] The cultural practices of the Raute are increasingly threatened by modernization and pressures of assimilation with sedentary Nepali groups.[5] Although efforts have been made to aid and support the Raute, these have been accompanied by their own set of issues and have been largely insufficient in sustaining the livelihood of the Raute people.[6] Solutions that aim to work with the Raute and their own value systems is essential in tackling the uncertain future of these people.

Background on the Raute People

Raute elder playing a madal.

The Raute people are a small community of forest nomads indigenous to northwestern Nepal.[7] They are widely recognized as "the last nomadic hunting-gathering tribe of Nepal".[5] The 2011 census for Nepal reported their population to be around 650, although most of these people have been placed in settlements and only an estimated 150 remain nomadic.[8] Though the exact origin of the group is relatively unknown, with ancestral roots tracing back at least three to four generations, their knowledge of and relationship with their forests would suggest they arose long ago.[7]. The Raute language is Khamchi, a language unique to themselves.[1] They have historically spoken very little Nepali, and have kept isolated from settlements[1], although this is changing in recent years.[5] Central to the Raute people’s identity is sharing, nomadism, autonomy, animism, and equity.[7] Their practice of migrating in response to ecological conditions through the districts of Salyan, Dailekh, Jajarkot, and Surkhet, play a critical role in environmental regeneration and demonstrates the community’s ecological knowledge.[5] They use the availability of traditional foods, like monkeys, and the diversity of tree species to dictate their movement.[2] The group’s nomadism is an example of the ways in which their traditional practices, founded on reciprocity with nature, foster the regeneration of the resources they depend on. Their sustainable practices have allowed them to continuously prosper off the land by hunting, gathering, trading, and creating traditional medicines.[9]

Challenges Experienced by the Raute People

Like many Indigenous peoples around the world, the Raute have endured political and cultural marginalization. Anthropologist Dor Bahadur Bista documented the discriminatory language used by local communities, such as “filthy” and “anti-social”, to describe the Raute people.[9] These comments represent one way the Raute people have experienced bigotry. Another instance of this marginalization occurred when Nepali villagers tried to incentivize Raute people with farm land to erase their nomadic identity.[7] This initiative was formed with the misguided belief that Raute culture lacks dignity.  

Moreover, it is believed that a challenge for the Raute people has been the ruling powers.[10] Until the territorial unification of Nepal under Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1769, Indigenous communities had their own lands.[10] However, since 1769 through various forms of government, numerous programs and policies have been implemented to limit the freedom of the Indigenous communities, including the Raute. For instance, the Raute lost control of their forests following the Community Forest Policy in 1978, and there are currently few policies that directly address Indigenous communities rights to natural resources.[2]

In addition to the socio-political stress on the Raute people, climate change is another vulnerability. The dependence of the community on forests has left them particularly susceptible to the consequences of the climate crisis.[2] If climate change deteriorates forest health, the resources that have become indispensable to them could become scarce. This would force the group to abandon their near complete dependence on forests, and in turn, lose part of their identity.

Reconciliation

The lack of understanding local communities have of Raute culture is an obstacle to the preservation of Raute identity and the conservation of their forests.[2] The value of Raute culture is often not considered an asset to conservation efforts despite the community's rich history and in-depth understanding of the land they occupy.[2] Collaboration between local communities, the Nepali government, and the Raute people is necessary for the remediation of the social and environmental pressure experienced by the Raute community.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Raute Livelihood

Raute camps, called ‘rauti’ are a collection of huts with roofs thatched using leaves, or plastic during the intense monsoon season. During drier seasons they migrate from high mountain forests to riverbanks or arable land, typically in close proximity to permanent villages. Migration typically occurs every month to two months and is based on food availability. The Rautes migrate in such a way they return to the same place every decade or so, providing sufficient time for vegetation and trees to regrow after being depleted for wood, monkey populations to regenerate, villagers to build up demand for trading again, and to cleanse their thoughts.[2]

The community is managed through a patriarchal social structure, not unlike the usual Hindu hierarchy, however, women are given a more significant role in upholding Raute livelihood and knowhow.[2] Women possess the knowledge and responsibility to derive water sources, identify medical herbs, and gather firewood and vegetation for sustenance from the forest, as well as take care of their children and household.[2] Their male counterparts construct wood utensils, hunt monkeys, trade in the market, and collect food grains.[2] As a part of their ties to nature, they partake in nature worshipping in order to honour the Earth from which they live off of, hence, they worship the sun, rivers, and forests.[3]

The Rautes rely on the forest for sustenance and hunt monkeys as one of their forms of nutrients[2]. The community abstains from hunting any other wild animals, and do not use weapons such as bows and arrows or guns, instead utilizing nets and mallets to kill the monkeys which terrorize local populations.[3] Additionally, women gather yams, mushrooms, bananas, and leafy green vegetables for food.[2] Their technique is unique, relying on eight to thirty able-bodied men to group-hunt.[2] In terms of agriculture, it is against the Rautes traditional values to plant a seed, making any farming and animal husbandry prohibited.[2] The nomadic Rautes settling ground is largely chosen based on naturally occurring spring water reserves as they only consume spring water.[3]

The Rautes derive their livelihood through the forest's prosperity, hence they feel stake in its wellbeing. Their nomadic nature is due to the belief that residing in a place for an extended period of time causes deforestation[3]. Their movement allows for plant regrowth and, as they see it, avoids any significant depletion of natural resources that would decrease biodiversity and resilience in that area[3]. They utilize prevalent wood species, ensuring to preserve economically viable species like Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, and Dalbergia sissoo, and only take wood unused by villagers to avoid conflict.[3] Timber is cut from soft-wooded trees like silk-cotton, and their products are carved using an axe, adze, and chhini, which makes holes in the wood.[2] Their nomadism is also based on their beliefs on death. When a community member dies, they are buried in the forest and the tribe moves within a day.[3]

An illustration of the importance of Raute traditional ecological knowledge is their relationship to medicinal plants. A study conducted by Narayan P. Manandhar recorded 47 different species of plants treating 17 different diseases used by the Raute people.[1] At the time of the study in 1998, the modern medical services of Nepal were insufficient to attend to the entirety of the population.[1] Traditional herbal knowledge was the main alternative for those needing medical attention, a knowledge that had yet been cultivated through a history with the land and verbally passed down.[1] The loss of the Raute culture and livelihood is accompanied by a loss of such knowledge, a knowledge that is generated through lived relationship with the land.

Threats to Raute Livelihood

The Rautes' dependence on the forest for their livelihoods places them in a position where they are threatened by climate change, forest degradation, and conflict over conservation efforts. Natural resource degradation through deforestation and climate change is impacting the ability of the Raute people to support themselves through traditional methods.[4] Climate change disproportionately affects communities such as the Raute who directly rely on the land for subsistence.[11] Decreasing vegetation and fauna have resulted in Raute community members having to travel further and expend more effort to hunt and forage.[2] More erratic monsoon seasons have swept away food sources as well as pathways for travel.[11] Because of irregular rainfall and increased temperatures, water sources have been drying up.[11] Water sources have also been increasingly more polluted from industry and settlements, increasing the occurrence of water-born illnesses such as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery.[11] Traditional medicines to treat these and other illnesses are becoming scarce as natural resources continue to be depleted.[11]

Forest harvest in Nepal

Along with the degrading functioning of the ecosystems the Raute rely on is a shrinking of territory which these people have access to. A history of forest acts have dispossessed the Raute people from their traditional land usage.[4] The Nationalization of Private Forest act of 1957 claimed all forests were government-owned, and that any use of them must be approved by the government.[11] The Forest Protection Act of 1967 further restricted Indigenous land use, and disregarded traditional forest management practices.[4] The establishment of national parks and the harvesting of forest has pushed the Raute out of traditional harvesting areas.[2] Although such acts have been executed for various motives, from commercial usage of the forest to protecting land, they have similarly interfered with traditional ways of life. Although discussion around Indigenous rights has occurred in Nepalese government, there is still legislation lacking to address these rights.[2] The 1993 Forestry Act created Community Forestry guidelines which gave the rights of local communities to manage forests in designated Community Forest land.[12] While Community Forests have helped in the issue of deforestation, they also pose a large threat to Raute livelihood.[12] Conflict has occurred between the Raute people and Community Forest managers who disapprove of Raute practices such as the cutting of live trees for dwellings which are subsequently burned.[11] This conflict has included accusation of environmental destruction and intimidation methods by Community Forest groups to discourage the Raute from engaging in their traditional forest usage.[11] Because the Raute people hold no legal title over any land, and due to these conflicts with forest managers, the Raute consider Community Forests to be the biggest threat interfering with their nomadic lifestyle.[12]

Globalization has also been a significant factor in threatening Raute livelihood. Market commercialization has replaced the traditional barter economy and has de-valued products used by the Raute for trading.[11] There is also concern over the detrimental impacts that monetary aid may yield for a community that has been self-sustaining for centuries prior.[11] An influx of NGOs have made the Raute community more dependent on external sources of money, but have failed to provide knowledge for these communities to sustain themselves in money-centred economic systems.[11] Dwindling forest resources for food and medicine and insufficient monetary support leave the Raute people in a precarious state of reliance on potentially unreliable outside sources going into the future.[11]

Current Remedial Actions

The Raute Community is an introverted and nomadic group, and while there have been numerous attempts at conserving the Indigenous traditions of this community through common organizations such as national forest management policies, as well as treaties and declarations like ILO169, the UNDRIP, and CBD[2], implementations have not been successful. Despite limited literature on their lifestyle, one standout project significantly improved their livelihood: the Conservation of Rautes Culture Through Livelihood Improvement. This project aimed to preserve the nomadic Rautes and their culture, recognizing that their traditional rights and dignity had been undermined by misconceptions about their purposeful lifestyle, which is nomadic. Its main objectives included advocating for the Raute rights, enhancing livelihoods through socio-economic empowerment, and documenting Raure knowledge and their connection with nature. Despite external pressures from people outside their community, the Raute defended their traditions and fought for their nomadic way of life, demonstrating unwavering determination and love for their culture, which was portrayed in the media through this project.[3] Ultimately, this remedial action succeeded in preserving the rights of the Raute community.

Nomadic Living

Given the limited literature on the Raute community and recognizing their shared struggles with other Indigenous communities, there are numerous alternative successful remedial actions that could be applied to this group. Firstly, many forests are claimed and turned into government-owned land. However, Indigenous groups are now actively participating in forest management and influencing resource development. In Canada, the forest sector has expanded to support jobs in more than 400 indigenous communities, employing 11,600 indigenous people. Joint ownerships for forest management companies, such as the partnership called Mistik Management Limited, allow both indigenous groups and industry to collaborate for sustainable forest use and stewardship, pursuing an indigenous-led forestry approach.[13] Secondly, traditional forest management practices are often disregarded, but in Northern Canada, indigenous traditional knowledge has been increasingly included and applied over the past 40 years to address issues of remediation, reclamation, and restoration at former industrial sites. It has been integrated into wildlife management and, in some instances, approval processes for industrial projects.[14] Thirdly, many Indigenous communities face displacement from their traditional harvesting areas. While some indigenous peoples now have provisions for traditional harvesting rights, they are no longer required to obtain a license or permit for hunting animals.[15] Fourthly, indigenous products are devalued due to market commercialization driven by globalization. These communities must challenge the assumptions of globalization, particularly its belief in the benefits of consumerism. Additionally, indigenous peoples serve as buffers against large-scale carbon emissions. There is evidence of tremendous growth potential for the global indigenous economy with increased participation of Indigenous businesses in trade and policy development, unlocking mutual economic prosperity.[16] Lastly, natural resource degradation affects the ability of indigenous communities to support themselves, as they directly rely on the land. Indigenous communities aim to assert full agency in shaping their economic and social development. Simultaneously, they seek to participate fully in decision-making processes that respect indigenous peoples' own laws, right to self-determination, human rights, and responsibilities for environmental and cultural stewardship.[17] All the aforementioned examples demonstrate effective implementations of traditional ecological knowledge for nomadic or indigenous groups, which could be adapted for the Raute Community of Nepal.

The Path Forward

The Raute are faced with increasing social and environmental pressures as they try to maintain their traditional nomadic lifestyle. Strategies for the future of these people have focused largely on the preservation of their culture and the providing of material aid. A 2022 report by the Nepal Informal Service Center (INSEC) gave several recommendations for future support for the Raute community. Included in these suggestions were the institutionalization of Raute culture and language, increased protection of Raute settlements from criminal activity, and ensuring that assistance is provided to these people through food, clothing, and medicine.[6] While these recommendations have the potential to be beneficial, it is important to recognize that assistance in the form of material goods has often been rejected by Raute community members.[9] Gaining trust from the Raute people is a significant task[9], and efforts toward this slow process must be made. The Raute are concerned about keeping private their communal and cultural knowledge[3], and these are values that must also be respected. Successful efforts to support the Raute people require the prioritization and integration of their values and way of life. INSEC recognizes that building policy with active participation among Raute community members is a crucial aspect to meaningful preservation of the Raute culture and livelihood[6].

Another consideration for the future of the Raute people is the conservation of the forest ecosystems which they rely on for both physical survival and cultural resilience.[2] Raute people directly depend on natural resources for housing, food, and traditional medicines.[1] Conservation mechanisms implemented must uphold the importance of these natural resources to Raute identity. One mechanism that would appropriately address the social and environmental pressures experienced by the community is Indigenous-led conservation. Within Indigenous-led conservation, Indigenous peoples are active stakeholders that lead or co-lead projects.[18] Collaboration with the Raute and their own vision for their future, as well as recognizing the importance of their nomadic lifestyle in management decisions is crucial for the ongoing survival of this culture.

Conclusion

Although the Nepal government has pushed for the importance of indigenous engagement in politics, new legislation has failed to secure the rights of the Raute people[19]. The lack of recognition of the nomadic lifestyle of the Raute has meant insufficient frameworks of economic systems, conservation, and social services to properly aid the Raute in continuing in their way of life. The Raute's reliance on the market has grown due to factors such as forest resource depletion, usage restrictions, welfare policies, and modern consumerism, opening the community to foreign influences.[5] As a result, the traditional economic structure of the Raute has transformed. This, combined with increasing pressures of climate change, biodiversity decline, and conflict with sedentary villages has left them with few choices in securing their future. It is difficult to forecast how long the Raute can maintain their culture and traditional way of life without assimilating into more modern and sedentary Nepalese culture.[2]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Manandhar, Narayan P (1998). "Native phytotherapy among the Raute tribes of Dadeldhura district, Nepal". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 60: 199–206.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 Banu, Y. (2017). The Raute Community and the Challenges to Maintain their Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Practice [Doctoral Thesis]. https://tsukuba.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/43133
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Conservation of Raute Culture through Livelihood Improvement. (n.d.). || UNDP-GEF-Small Grants Programme Nepal ||. Retrieved February 16, 2024, from https://www.sgp.org.np/assets/docs/pro-publication/Rautes%20the%20Last%20Nomads%20of%20Nepal.pdf
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Yasin, B., & MATSUI, K. (2019). Impacts national policies on indigenous people livelihood in Nepal: A case study of the Raute community. Journal of Advanced Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(1), 29-39.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Kumar Paudel, Manoj. (2016). Resistance and Change: A Case Study of Economic Changes and Its Effect on Language, Food Habits and Dress of the Nomadic Hunting-Gathering Raute of Nepal (MPhil thesis). The Arctic University of Norway.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "The Raute Community: A Study of the Conditions in the Last 15 Years" (PDF). Inseconline. 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Jana, Fortier (2003). "Reflections on Raute Identity" (PDF). Studies in Nepali History & Society. 8: 317–348.
  8. ↑ https://unstats.un.org/unsD/demographic/sources/census/wphc/Nepal/Nepal-Census-2011-Vol1.pdf
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Bista, Dor Bahadur (1976). "Encounter With the Raute: The Last Hunting Nomads of Nepal". Kailash. 4: 317–328 – via Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (2016). Land, Forest and Indigenous Peoples' Rights in Relation to Climate Change and REDD (Policy and Program Analysis). Nepal: NEFIN. p. 7.
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 Paudel, M. K. (2016). Resistance and change. A case study of economic changes and its effects on language, food habits, and dress of the nomadic hunting-gathering Raute of Nepal.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Sayer, Jeffrey, A. (2007). Forests, People, and Power: The Political Ecology of Reform in South Asia. The Earthscan Forestry Library. ISBN 978-1-84407-347-4.
  13. ↑ Vuong, Calvin (20 Sept. 2023). "How Indigenous Participation in Forest Management is Changing Resource Development". Macleans. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ Sandlos, John; Keeling (Arn). "Aboriginal Communities, Traditional Knowledge, and the Environmental Legacies of Extractive Development in Canada". The Extractive Industries and Society. vol. 3, no. 2 – via ScienceDirect. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ↑ "Harvesting Rights". Aboriginal Legal Aid in BC. Retrieved 14 Apr. 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  16. ↑ Viader, Janet (2020). "Globalization and Its Impact on Indigenous Cultures". Bard Graduate Studies in Sustainability.
  17. ↑ Fitzgerald, Oonagh; Mahoney, Kathleen (27 June 2019). "Environmental Challenges on Indigenous Lands". Center for International Governance Innovation.
  18. ↑ Environment and Climate Change Canada (February 1, 2024). "Indigenous-Led Area-Based Conservation". Government of Canada. Retrieved April 14, 2024.
  19. ↑ Observations on the State of Indigenous Human Rights in Nepal in Light of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Nepal (Report). Cultural Survival. 2015


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