Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Diclofenac and Vultures: Lesson learnt from India and Nepal

Introduction

In past decades, diclofenac has been widely used as a veterinary medicine on livestock animals, which directly impacted the population of the genus Gyps vulture species in South Asia as the diclofenac-treated livestock is a source of prey in their diet and led to vulture death from residues in the hunted livestock. Starting early 2000s, the remedial conservation effort made by many collaborators among South Asia paid off as a successful result in restoring vulture population. This wiki page intends to shed light on the historical policy and regulations applied to restore the vulture population specifically in the context of two countries, India and Nepal. Furthermore, compare and contrast existing implementations of this topic and provide recommendations for future vulture conservation reference.

Vulture Mortality and Endangerness Related to Diclofenac Toxicity

Diclofenac as a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) veterinary drug used on sick farm animals has led to a plummeted decrease in the genus Gyps vulture species to the risk of global extinction. In merely three decades ago, the population across the Indian subcontinent collapsed to only 1% in contrast to before . It was not until 10 years later that scientists identified the cause to be the widely-used veterinary drug diclofenac. It is commonly used on sick farm animals like cattle for treating and managing inflammation, fever and injuries. Researchers draw evidence from clinical signs and residues of diclofenac in vulture carcasses that confirms the toxicity of diclofenac on vulture species in South Asia. More specifically, three prominent species: Oriental White-backed (Gyps bengalensis), long-billed (Gyps indicus) and slender-billed (Gyps tenuirostris) are risk endangered due to fatal kidney failure and extensive visceral gout to diclofenac by scavenging livestocks that are treated with such medicine . As per statistics, since the early 1990s, these endemic vulture species have reported a shocking declined population rate at more than 95%, which was prolonged by an annual decrease rate of 22% to 48% across the Indian subcontinent.

Vultures feed on dead livestock as a source of food.

Diclofenac treatment in India: Ban to Replacement

In the early 1990s, the sighting of vultures scavengaing on carcasses of domestic catlle and buffolo become visible to the public's eye in India. Due to religious reasons locally, cattle and buffolo are generally not consumed as food but the remains of these animals contribute to abundant sources of food for the vultures . The coexistance of vultures and residents synergize many ecosystem services such as reducing potential health risk by the cattle decomposing domestic livestock residues . However, the history prior to the vulture conservation plan is poorly recognized until vulture mortality by feeding off livestock treated with diclofenac is revealed .

In response, both countries took immediate measures to counter this issue in the early 2000s. The Indian government initiated its first Diclofenac ban in September 2005. In months of still propagating the effects of the ban, researchers have facilitated more studies on a more effective fix to fully implement the drug ban. They have sought reference from the captive bird collection globally and concluded a viable substitute– Meloxicam, that serves the same veterinary use but allows less vulture mortality in the Indian subcontinent . For more information, Meloxicam is a similar type of NSAID veterinary medicine that has been tested safe and of low-toxicity on 35 species of Gyps genus vultures. From little change to alleviated vulture population decrease, Balmford (2013) draws lessons from the coupled effort between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and governments for the remedy.

Diagram on different NSAID medicines and their impacts on plummeted vulture population

Tracing the rebound, collaborations on educating the public and funding research yield successful slowed or even paused effects on vulture population decline. In India alone, the mentioned vulture species population show no decline for five years between 2007 and 2011; whereas the oriental white-backed vultures (Gyps bengalensis) even experience an increase in its numbers . Nonetheless, the Vulture Specialist Group from the International Union for Conservation of Nature pose concern on the slowed down vultural mortality rate but yet to be stabilised population status .

Nepal's Sky Guardians: Reviving the Vultures from the Brink of Extinction

Vultures play an important role in Nepal's ecosystem by performing essential ecological functions. They are considered keystone species that contribute significantly to the ecosystem's health and balance. They play an important role in cleaning dead animals, which helps prevent the spread of diseases and maintain ecological balance. In addition to their ecological role, vultures also have cultural and religious significance in Nepal. For example, Hindus worship vultures as the vehicle of Saturn, and they are associated with practices like sky burial in Buddhist traditions. However, the population of vultures had declined drastically due to factors such as drug(diclofenac) abuse, which had had a negative impact on both the ecosystem and cultural traditions. To address this issue, Nepal had taken significant conservation measures, such as establishing safe ‘diclofenac-free’ feeding sites for vultures and implementing bans on harmful veterinary drugs like diclofenac. Removing veterinary diclofenac and managing "vulture safe zones" are essential for conserving critically endangered Gyps vultures in Nepal. The Vulture Safe Zone program in Nepal, which promotes conservation and awareness, has partially recovered critically endangered Gyps vulture populations, with diclofenac use being a key factor in their decline. These conservation efforts have led to positive outcomes, including an increase in vulture populations and nesting success in protected areas like Vulture Safe Zones. Furthermore, initiatives like vulture restaurants have not only supported vulture conservation but have also generated tourism revenue for local communities and promoted livelihood activities like beekeeping and organic farming.  Overall, vultures in Nepal hold a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance, preventing disease outbreaks, and preserving cultural traditions. By investing in vulture conservation efforts, Nepal is not only safeguarding these magnificent birds but also ensuring a sustainable future for its ecosystem and human well-being.

Future of Vulture Protection

The strides made in vulture conservation in India and Nepal highlight the pivotal role of informed advocacy, robust scientific research, and the collaboration between governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and local communities. The decline of gyps vultures in India and Nepal has slowed since the ban on veterinary use of diclofenac in 2006. The implementation of a Vulture Safe Zone program in Nepal led to a partial recovery of White-rumped and Slender-billed vulture populations between 2013 and 2018. While significant progress has been made, the journey towards sustainable vulture conservation continues to evolve, reflecting both past successes and emerging challenges.

The recent bans on the veterinary NSAIDs Ketoprofen and Aceclofenac in India, as reported by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) in July 2023, mark a continued commitment to mitigating pharmaceutical threats to vulture populations. Aceclofenac, in particular, poses risks similar to Diclofenac, as it metabolizes into Diclofenac when ingested by cattle. These measures are crucial, considering that residues of these drugs in livestock carcasses can lead to renal failure and death in scavenging vultures.

Looking forward, the focus of vulture conservation must be not only on upholding these drug bans, but also on expanding vulture-safe zones, raising public awareness and incorporating scientific findings into decision-making. For example, continued research into the safety and efficacy of alternative medicines that are not harmful to vultures is essential. Meloxicam is a safe alternative to diclofenac for treating livestock ailments, and should be introduced as a rapid and widespread alternative across the Indian subcontinent to protect critically endangered Gyps vultures and other scavenging birds.

In addition, the promotion of international cooperation could enhance the genetic diversity of vulture populations through coordinated breeding programs. In addition, there is growing recognition of the need for comprehensive habitat conservation strategies to address other threats such as electrocution from power lines, habitat degradation and climate change. Combining different management actions, especially removing causes of human-related mortality (poisoning and collisions on wind farms), will help the Egyptian vulture population grow and persist in the long term. These strategies should include the modernization of electricity infrastructure and the promotion of traditional carcass disposal methods that benefit vulture populations.

Education and community engagement remain at the heart of these efforts. By strengthening community participation, especially in rural areas where livestock farming is prevalent, stakeholders can better understand and support the measures necessary to protect these important species. For similar conservation effort, one aspect of identifying risks and threats to the targeted protected species is proposed by the Vulture Conservation Action Plan for Myanmar (2019-2025). The action plan underscores educating the community in cases like counteracting the negative cultural perception of vultures, preventing the illegal marketing vultures for pets, and mitigating the harming and poisoning of these birds, all of which contribute to vulture mortality . The report lays out insights into a complete review of caring vultures throughout their livestages. Examples of named projects include of preventing the loss of vulture nesting, ensuring food sufficiency and availability, monitoring and researching vulture populations by region and state, establishing detailed policy and regulations, initiating vulture breeding programs and etc . In addition, the expansion of eco-tourism programs such as "vulture restaurants" can provide economic incentives for local communities to participate in conservation efforts.

The present of vulture conservation plans provides a foundation of safeguarding the survival of vulture species. Moving forward, it is essential to consider additional issues related to conserving vultures and support these plans with responsible agencies and researchers to ensure a comprehensive understanding of vulture conservation and applying the pattern in future arising issues.

In summary, the future of vulture conservation will depend on a holistic approach that combines strict regulations, scientific innovation and community-based conservation strategies. This will not only help to conserve vulture populations, but also maintain the health of ecosystems and the well-being of the humans who depend on them.

Group Roles Contribution

Yuhan Chen

• Case review for Nepal
• Future recommendations
• Formatting and editing

Yixuan Wang

• Introduction
• Background on diclofenac and vulture population status
• Case review for India
• Partially future recommendations
• Formatting and editing