Course:CONS200/2023WT2/Dhole in Nepal: Status, distribution, ecology and conservation

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Introduction

The Dhole (Cuon alpinus), also referred to as the Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog, Dholes have a life span of around 10-12 years in the wild, but can live up to 16 years in captivity.[1] They have black tails, reddish fur, yellowish eyes, and upright ears, and weigh between 26 and 44 pounds, comparable to the size of a German Shepherd.[2] Dholes are hypercarnivores, which means that their diet consists of almost entirely meat, although if food is scarce, they will also eat berries and bugs.[2][3]

Distribution
Resident distribution of dholes (Cuon alpinus)

Dholes live in populations fragmented across mountainous regions of South and Southeast Asia.[2] Once boasting an extensive range spanning from northern Pakistan to the Korean peninsula, resident dhole distribution has been reduced to India, Nepal, Tibet, and Myanmar, with scattered populations across Southeast Asia due to widespread habitat loss and fracturing.[4] The effects of habitat loss are especially critical with dholes due to their extraordinarily high range requirements.[5] Dholes require an area five times larger than the area required of a tiger, for example.[3] This is also a significant factor contributing to the difficulty of setting up preserves for dholes.[6] Dholes prefer to live in mountainous forested areas, but are also found in alpine praries and steppes.[5]

Ecology

Dholes are highly social animals that live in clans which can range in size from just 2 to 40 or more.[2] They have a complex body language and are more social than grey wolves, but less territorial due to the relative stability of food abundance year round.[7] Dholes are not very territorial and different clans are not typically antagonistic towards one another and intermix freely.[3] They do not mark their territory in any way as do other canids. Dhole clans are distinct from packs, such as the packs of grey wolves, in that packs are hunting units while dhole clans live together but do not necessarily hunt together.[7]

Similarly to other canids such as African wild dogs and dingoes, dholes live in underground dens which are typically formed over the course of generations. These dens are typically located under vegetation and near rivers or creeks.[6] They can consist of multiple openings which lead into a network of interconnecting tunnels up to 35 meters long. Dholes typically avoid killing prey near their dens.

Before beginning a hunt, dholes engage in social rituals includes nuzzling and rubbing against each other. Hunts typically take place in the early morning and can last for hours due to the great endurance of dholes and a system of taking turns being the lead chaser.[6] While hunting, dholes use different vocalizations to communicate with their pack including whistling sounds, squeaks, chatters, and yaps.[2] Dholes frequently drive their prey into water in order to restrict their movement. After a kill, dholes allow access to their whole clan, feeding pups regurgitated food. This is in contrast with other more hierarchial canids like grey wolves where the leader will monopolize a kill.[7] Dholes are not known to attack humans, although they do frequently prey on livestock. Some common prey species of Dholes include deer, pigs, buffalo, ibex, and rabbits. [3]

Dholes are generally sympatric with tigers and leopards as they have differing prey preferences.[6] However, tigers are known to kill dholes and occasionally steal their kills. Dholes are generally antagonistic towards wolves but have occassionally been spotted coexisting or even hunting with them.[6]

Dhole (Cuon alpinus)

Background and Ecology

Threats

The Dhole is classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List, meaning an extinction risk exists. [8] The species faces many threats which is the cause of their low population. There is an estimated global population of 949-2,215 mature individuals in the wild.[8] One reason for this low number is that people persecute dholes driven by conflicts over livestock as they are perceived as threatening to them [8]. This causes human-dhole conflicts where local herders use poison to kill Dholes to prevent the loss of their animals.[9] Using poison to kill Dholes can wipe out an entire pack as a pack will feed on a single animal.[10] A study shows that 18% of a Dholes’ diet comes from livestock, highlighting the issues of coexistence of these conflicts and showcasing the cause of human-dhole conflicts.[9] Out of fear for their livelihoods, herders will resort to lethal measures such as killing Dholes with guns and rodenticides.[10] Due to the seasonal movement of livestock, the Dholes’ hunting of them is also seasonal.[9] There is also a perceived negative image of Dholes from the citizens of Nepal because they hunt livestock, which negatively impacts the livelihoods of the farmers of Nepal.[9] This sentiment is also found in Dhole's hunting of game species. The persecution of Dholes by people plays a major role in its declining population.

In Nepal, about 500 individuals [8] with their habitats often being destroyed due to hydropower projects and road construction.[8] The creation of palm plantations and infrastructure developments are also leading factors.[11] This is linked to the fact that hydropower projects in Nepal do not often comply with environmental regulations.[8] These construction projects often fragment into smaller pieces of land, which is extremely harmful as it isolates one habitat from another, and animals aren’t able to travel between them.[12] Dholes require a very large territory to be able to maintain their population, with some packs' territories being up to 34 square miles in size.[11]This would mean that there would be a larger population of animals in an even smaller isolated patch of habitat.[12] The loss of habitats for Dholes creates a very harmful impact to them with 75% of their historic range being lost.[10] The lowland areas where they reside support 50% of the total human population in Nepal, which puts immense pressure on dholes.[8] The fragmentation and significant loss of their habitat lands by human development limits their access to food which in turn increases competition for these resources.

Range of Dholes

Dholes also experience competition with other species such as tigers and leopards.[10] Both tigers and leopards have been known to kill Dholes, while Dhole packs have also been known to kill the two large cats.[10] Typically Dholes avoid tigers but they are behaviorally dominant against leopards. The meetings between these big cats and Dholes would increase in the future due to the loss of usable territories for both species.[10]With less room, all three species will face increased competition for resources and land.[10]

There is also a risk of disease transmission from domestic dogs, and Dholes are known for being susceptible to infectious diseases like rabies and canine distemper virus.[8] Rabies is a viral disease that causes inflammation of the brain in mammals, and it almost guarantees death in the victim.[13] It also causes aggressiveness and paralysis in dogs.[14] It is caused by lyssaviruses and spreads from infected animals and rapidly spreads to both domestic and wild canines.[13] The Canine Distemper Virus attacks dogs' immune systems, weakening the immune response and putting dogs at high risk of other infections.[15]   The virus is widespread in Nepal and has a disproportionate impact on Dholes.[8] The encroachment of humans plays a role in transmitting diseases to Dholes, as humans bring in domesticated dogs.[16]

The conservation and protection of Dholes in Nepal is a difficult challenge due to different factors such as habitat destruction, disease transmission, human relationships, and other ecological impacts. Effective strategies need to be implemented to prevent this apex predator from going extinct and also prevent the imbalance of biodiversity in Nepal.

Conservation measures currently in place

Dholes have been classified as endangered by the IUCN and Nepal and put on their red list but due to a variety of different factors, there are not many current conservation efforts in place currently for them. Dholes receive much less scientific attention compared to other large carnivores which can be partly attributed to their lower charisma factor.[17] High economic and socio-political commitments are also required to conserve large carnivores like the Dhole compared to smaller and more abundant animals.[18] This can be attributed to their large pack sizes and hypercarnivorous diets as this creates large minimum land requirements for maintaining a sustainable dhole population.[19] For example, Dhole populations require 5 times more land area than populations of tigers because they are social carnivores and travel in large packs.[19]

Protected areas of Nepal

At the same time though there are still some conservation efforts in place for the Dhole in Nepal. Many protected areas have been established all around Nepal and studies show that Dholes are found in 18 protected areas in Nepal.[20] In Nepal, Dholes are found in a wide range of land types from southern lowland protected areas to northern high mountain protected areas.[20] In the Nepal National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1973, Dholes were put under schedule-I protected species as many people would kill them after the Dholes would raid their livestock.[21] Conservation areas that were established like the Kanchenjunga conservation area managed to revive much of the Dhole population too by reducing the killing of Dholes.[21] Additionally, the Api Nampa conservation area was established in 2010 in Darchula, Nepal which is home to many Dholes and has proved to be relatively successful in maintaining their population.[21] These protected areas are not fully sufficient in conserving Dhole populations though as habitat fragmentation due to slash and burn practices, forest products collection, and human-dhole conflict all remain as threats in protected areas like the Kangchenjuna conservation area.[17]

Dhole's relationship with livestock and other ecosystem components

There is also a growing acknowledgment of the ecological role of Dholes in controlling agricultural crop predators as when Dhole populations are at a stable level, there are fewer herbivores like deer which tend to prey on agricultural crops.[22]. Crop yield can be increased in these communities by having stable Dhole populations that ensure herbivore populations like deer don't become too high and consume too many agricultural crops. At the same time though, Dholes still attack livestock themselves sometimes which has resulted in many negative attitudes towards them from local communities and an opposition to their conservation.[22] To counteract this, in Nepal, 35,000 in relief funds have been provided to dhole affected livestock herders to discourage them from killing the Dholes that attack their livestock.[21] This will help preserve sustainable trophic chain dynamics in Nepalese forests and communities as it will ensure Dhole populations stay stable so that herbivore populations do not become too high and that the plants and livestock of the communities stay abundant.

Dholes

Additionally, some studies have found that when certain areas have abundant Dhole prey populations like Sambar, Dhole populations receive significant benefit from this as well.[20] Since Dholes are diurnal hunters, they have a large constraint on their prey choice and resource use compared to other large carnivores so it is imperative that their prey are conserved as well.[19] By prioritizing conservation of areas with significant Dhole prey populations, Dhole conservation efforts can have much higher success rates. In another study, it was also found that slope steepness is one of the most significant factors influencing dhole presence in Nepal's Dhoropatan hunting reserve where Dholes were found to use more gently sloped land more than steep areas.[23] One issue with this though is that as human-dhole conflict continues to grow in more gently sloped pastural land, Dholes will continue to be pushed out of these lands and into more steeper mountainous regions where they struggle to travel in large packs and find abundant prey. To combat this, protected areas need to prioritize improving human-dhole relations and reducing livestock loss so that Dhole's can continue to utilize gentler slopes and stay closer to more abundant prey sources. Most ecological reserves in Nepal also only focus on conserving umbrella species like tigers and the one horned rhinoceros to highlight their conservation efforts.[23] Given the fact that Dholes have a very high requirement for space and prey, they could also be marketed as umbrella species and help promote the designation of more protected areas in Nepal.[23]

Potential conservation solutions

Despite conservation efforts around the dhole being currently limited, there are a multitude of solutions available for locals and governments in proximity to the wild dog. In addition to many ecologically dangerous practices needing to be mitigated or abolished, the implementation of new conservation methods may also be beneficial to dholes. As with many cases of endangered species, the threats that put the dhole at risk of extinction need to be controlled in order for them to successfully recolonize and thrive in the wild.[8]

Mitigation of existing harmful practices

One of many notable hazards to dholes is poison traps set up by ranchers. Local herders have been found to poison dholes for the protection of their livestock including blue sheep and cattle.[9] Patterns of dhole poisoning have worsened cultural perceptions of the animal as they are portrayed as problematic, harmful predators on agricultural land. Such examples of targeting dholes make it “imperative to minimize livestock predation by addressing prevailing lax herding practices among rural agro-pastoralists” in order to “mitigate human-carnivore conflicts".[22] As the primary objective of ranchers is to protect their livestock populations, one potential solution is to improve sheltering arrangements, such as customized livestock corrals with stall-feeding systems.[22] Cooperative herding of livestock and the restriction of grazing are other considerable solutions, but the application of these measures are dependent on the willingness of herders to adjust from traditional practices.[22] Economic offsets due to dhole predation of livestock may be compensated through monetary payments or insurance schemes. However, herders may take advantage of these systems by misusing or inequitably valuing livestock.[17][22] By improving the relationship between ranchers and dholes, cultural perceptions of the animal may see positive changes as well.

Human-driven killing of animals extends beyond the targeting of dholes as blue sheep are a prized target for trophy hunters.[9] This is an issue for dhole conservation as blue sheep make up a significant portion of the dholes’ diet. Aryal et al. (2015) asserted that local “management authorities need to consider this issue before allocating the quota for hunting blue sheep and should also consider that there are other predators depending upon blue sheep”.[9]

Implementation of preventative measures

While the mitigation of slaughter habits would benefit dhole populations, the development and utilization of generative methods may also yield long term advantages for the endangered canids. One key element in the recolonization of dholes is the habitats they depend on to thrive as a species. In contrast to pasture lands on which dholes prey upon livestock, safe and protected natural habitats, such as forests, are needed for them to live in. In addition to overall habitat defragmentation (e.g., agricultural slashing & burning), the reduction of forested areas in Nepal is regarded as a significant determinant in the decline of local dhole populations.[8][17]

An effective means of protecting dhole populations is improving local management and policies around wildlife rehabilitation processes. There is minimal literature confirming the implementation of significant political and/or structural support around the conservation of dholes in terms of banning poison usage or trophy hunting in areas like Nepal. However, researchers have stressed a need to advise hunting management authorities to create effective policies by better understanding the habitat requirements and feeding ecology of dholes.[9] They suggest that “without an understanding of habitat and prey requirements and species’ relationship with humans, it is difficult to manage the species on a large scale”.[9] At the local level, educational programs can improve the attitudes that people have towards dholes and their appreciation for the positive effects that dholes have on the ecosystem like controlling other species that destroy crops.[9][17][23]

Systemic efforts to conserve dholes depend not only on the protection of the animals themselves but also their surrounding environments. As previously mentioned, the slope of a landscape is one of the most significant determinants of dhole distribution within a region as the animals tend to occupy gently sloped land more than steep areas.[23] The importance of this lies in the strategic hunting of dholes on these types of lands. With proper systemic protection of these lands, through the implementation of well-monitored protected areas, dholes may have a lower chance of being hunted if the protected area’s boundaries fully encompass a suitable dhole habitat.[23] Following such strategies can also have benefits extending beyond the protected areas that dholes inhabit because the function of dhole containment would simultaneously reduce their conflict with humans and predation of other animals like livestock.[23]

Conclusion

The critical status of the Dhole indicates an urgent need for comprehensive conservation efforts. Threatened by habitat destruction, human-wildlife conflicts, and disease transmission, the Dhole faces a myriad of challenges which threaten extinction. Despite ongoing conservation initiatives, addressing the root causes of Dhole decline demands a multifaceted approach that prioritizes coexistence, reconciles conflicting interests, and promotes sustainable practices. By bolstering awareness, engaging stakeholders, and implementing adaptive management strategies, there is a tangible opportunity to reverse the trajectory of Dhole decline. Investing in Dhole conservation not only safeguards biodiversity but also yields tangible benefits for ecosystems and human livelihoods, underscoring the imperative of proactive action to secure the health and resilience of our natural world in the face of escalating anthropogenic pressures.

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.[24]

  1. ↑ PBS. "Dhole Fact Sheet". Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 National Geographic. "Dhole". National Geographic. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 San Diego Zoo. "Dhole". Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  4. ↑ Canids. "Dhole". Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Heptner, V. G. (1998). Genus Cuon. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian. ISBN 1-886106-81-9.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Songsassen, N.; Kamler, J. F. (2015). "Cuon alpinus". IUCN.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Fox, M. W. (1984). Field Studies of the Asiatic Wild Dog. Albany. ISBN 978-0-9524390-6-6.
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 Ghimirey, Y; Acharya, R.; Yadav, K.; Rai, J.; Baral, R.; Neupane, U.; van Rensburg, B.J. (2024). "Challenges and possible conservation implications of recolonizing dholes Cuon alpinus in Nepal". Oryx: 1–9.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Aryal, A.; Panthi, S.; Barraclough, R.K.; Bencini, R.; Adhikari, B.; Ji, W. (2015). "Habitat selection and feeding ecology of dhole (cuon alpinus) in the himalayas". Journal of Mammalogy. 96 (1): 47–53.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Canids. "Dhole". Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 National Geographic. "Dhole". National Geographic. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Naturetrust BC (March 31, 2022). "Habitat Fragmentation and how land conservation is putting the pieces back together".
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 CDC (December 8,2022). "Rabies". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ↑ VCA Canada. "Rabies in dogs". Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  15. ↑ AVMA (N.D). "Canine Distemper". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ↑ PBS. "Dhole Fact Sheet". Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Khatiwada, A.P.; Awasthi, K.D.; Gautam, N.P.; Jnawali, S.R.; Subedi, N.; Aryal, A. (2011). "The pack hunter (dhole): received little scientific attention" (PDF). The Initiation. 4: 8–13.
  18. ↑ Srivathsa, A; Sharma, S.; Singh, P.; Punjabi, G.A.; Oli, M.K. (2020). "A strategic road map for conserving the Endangered dhole Cuon alpinus in India". Mam rev. 2: 399–412.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Kamler, J. (2012). "The diet, prey selection, and activity of dholes (Cuon alpinus) in northern Laos". Journal of Mammalogy. 93(3): 627–633.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Bahadur Thing, S. (2022). "Distribution and habitat-use of Dhole Cuon alpinus (Mammalia: Carnivora: Canidae) in Parsa National Park, Nepal". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 14(3).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Neupane, Babita (April 2017). "Status and distribution of Cuon alphines in Api Nampa Conservation Area, Darchula, Nepal" (PDF). Tribhuvan University.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Thinley, P; Rajaratnam, R; Norbu, L; et al. (July 2021). "Understanding Human–Canid conflict and coexistence: Socioeconomic correlates underlying local attitude and support toward the endangered dhole (cuon alpinus) in bhutan". Frontiers in Conservation Science. 2 – via DOAJ.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 Thinley, P. (2021). "Conserving an Endangered Canid: Assessing Distribution, Habitat Protection, and Connectivity for the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan". Animal Conservation. 2.
  24. ↑ En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Writing better articles. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles [Accessed 18 Jan. 2018].


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