Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Threats to and conservation of the brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) in Greece

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Brown Bear (Ursus Arctos) populations in Greece have declined, and the species is considered endangered[1]. The main causes of population decline are habitat fragmentation and human-wildlife conflicts[1]. This article highlights how and why the population of Brown Bears started declining, the ecological relevance of Brown Bears, the identified pushbacks to conservation, and finally, discusses current and future remedial and conservation actions.

Background

Brown Bears in Europe

The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is the largest carnivore in Europe. It has a total population of approximately 50,000[2] of which 17,000 live outside of Russia [3]. The population can be found in Russia, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Italy, Greece, North Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Spain, and France[2]. Brown Bears are apex predators. Brown Bears are large, brown animals with a broad head, large snout and round ears. When standing up they can reach a height of between 1.70 and 2.20 meters[4]. Depending on the habitat they can weigh between 100 and 350 kilos[4]. Larger bears have access to meat, smaller bears many have a plant-based diet. They have long claws and a large hump for feeding purposes. They are shy and retreating by nature, but can be dangerous when provoked[2]. In general, they live in solitude, but sometimes they can be found in small groups[1].

Location of Brown Bears in Northern Greece

In Greece, the Brown Bear can mainly be found in the North, in the mountain ranges Pindos, Prespa and Rhodope[1]. Even though the Brown Bear is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN red list, the species is considered endangered in Greece, as it has a population smaller than 500[1]. Greek Brown Bears are threatened because of habitat fragmentation due to agriculture and infrastructure, and human-wildlife conflicts[1]. Concerning habitat fragmentation, many forest areas in Greece have been converted to agriculture, and there have been many cases of construction of large roads, opening of forest roads to the public, illegal logging, fires and installation of wind turbines and dams. Furthermore, these examples of changes to land due to infrastructure and agriculture have also led to human-wildlife conflicts[5]. Between 2005 and 2020, approximately 100 Brown Bears have been killed in road accidents[5]. The Brown Bear is also in conflict with humans as bears often cause livestock depredation and agricultural damage. This has led to many cases of bear killings by farmers whose agricultural production has suffered damages caused by bears[6].

Ecological Significance

The Brown Bear, as a keystone species, plays a pivotal ecological role whereby its interactions with the surrounding environment can shape the entirety of the ecosystem they inhabit. Characterized as an omnivore with a flexible trophic niche, the Brown Bear maintains a diverse dietary profile encompassing fruits, shrubs, larvae, fish, and various animals[7]. Consequently, its ecological impact extends across multiple trophic levels within the forest ecosystem. As a predator, the Brown Bear keeps other animal population levels in check through both culling and consuming dead carcasses, which reduces disease spread and, in turn, population collapse [7]. Through its contribution to the decomposition of animal carcasses, the Brown Bear facilitates the accelerated deposition of nitrogen into forest soil, thereby enhancing both the rate and spatial extent of nutrient enrichment, which, in turn, augments the growth of plant life [8]. In its role as a predator, the Brown Bear additionally prevents the Mediterranean Red Deer population from overgrazing, reducing soil erosion [7] [9].

The most notable ecological benefit of Brown Bears within a forest ecosystem is their contributions to seed dispersion. In Greece, the Brown Bears diet relies primarily on fruit consumption, surpassing their counterparts from other regions in consuming a broader spectrum of fruit varieties [10]. The typical Brown Bear can disperse more than 200,000 seeds per hour within a one-square-kilometer range; under optimal conditions, a single pile of its scat can yield approximately 1,200 seedlings [8]. The seeds are dispersed through the bear's scat, which, due to their migratory patterns, spans long distances, aiding in plant regeneration [10]. It is worth highlighting that seeds consumed by bears exhibit a higher germination rate than those that have not undergone the digestive process [10].

A mother bear and her cub climb over an enclosure to raid a cherry orchard in the Kastoria region northern Greece

Habitat fragmentation in Greece has directly impacted the Brown Bears' ability to perform their ecological role, restricting gene flow across large spatial areas [11]. Infrastructure barriers such as fencing, highways, and encroachment have decreased landscape connectivity, reducing long-distance dispersal events crucial for transmitting genetic material when colonizing and re-colonizing endemic habitats [11]. A decrease in the Brown Bear population has a negative impact on seed dispersal services, which, in turn, directly hinders the region's plant regeneration processes [10]. In conclusion, a reduction in the Brown Bear population has negative population consequences for the Mediterranean ecosystem as a whole.

Economic and social relevance

Brown Bears also have an impact on the economy, as they attract tourists. In northern Greece, there are several Wildlife Conservation tours[12]. These tours and general attraction of people to the areas because of bears have a positive impact on the Greek economy. The existence of Brown Bears thus has an impact on local economies in mountainous areas. In general, the existence of wildlife and a great biodiversity has economic value as well, as a prosperous planet can support our lives and lifestyles more than a depleted one[13] .

On top of having environmental and economic value, Brown Bears also have cultural and social value. The general public may value the preservation of healthy populations of Brown Bears or the habitats that support them, regardless of economic value. Cultural values of wildlife preservation are often aesthetic, spiritual, recreational, educational and inspirational[13].

Current Remedial Actions

Map of the European Green Belt

There are currently three levels of conservation efforts for the Brown Bear within Greece: international government agreements, local government agreements, and non-government organization efforts.  

International Efforts

Three of the largest international agreements to protect the Brown Bear’s trans-border migration habits include the European Green Belt, Pan-European Action Plan for large carnivores[14], and the Balkans Project. The European Green Belt is a wildlife corridor that stretches from Finland to Greece, it allows for animals to safely migrate across human habitats.

The Pan-European Action Plan for large carnivores was established in 2000 by the National Authorities and the Council of Europe. This plan established that poaching is illegal, and that agreeing countries should prepare their own management plans for future conservation of the Brown Bear[15]. The Balkans Project is established between Albania, Greece and North Macedonia, in which the habitat of the Brown Bear in the Balkan Mountain range is located. This project aims to improve habitat fragmentation and improve the coexistence of the bears and humans.

Local Government Efforts

Under national law, the Brown Bear is a fully protected species, and is included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. This means killing and trading Brown Bears is illegal. Furthermore, within Greece, three main areas of conservation have been established in the form of national parks. Prespa National Park is situated in western Greece and boarders Albania and North Macedonia. Northern Pindos National Park is the largest national park in the country, covering 2,000 km2 of land. Rodopi Mountain Range National Park population is located in northeastern Greece[16]. A 2015 study using hair traps to collect sampling data suggested that the population of bears in the Pindos Mountain range was twice the size of what was currently presumed[3]. Adding this to the estimate of the total Rodopi bear population in Greece can be assumed to be greater than 450 individuals[3] .

Non-Government Organization Efforts

Non-governmental organizations are also major contributors to the conservation case of the Brown Bear. Founded in 2004, the Callisto project [17] focuses on conservation of major carnivores in Europe. They raise citizen awareness of environmental problems and are involved in urging the Greek government to place stronger protections on the Brown Bear. In the mid to late 1990s the two-phase ARCTOS[18] project aimed to identify the main threats to the Brown Bear in Greece, identify solutions to the threats, and raise citizen awareness on safe human-wildlife interaction. The ARCTOS project concluded that wildlife corridors need to be expanded to relive traffic related bear incidents[19], that farmers should invest in herding dogs to keep livestock safe, and that people can install electric fences to keep their gardens safe.  

Future Solutions

Average number of insurance claims compensated annually per prefecture in Greece due to damages by brown bears (1999-2006)

Not all citizens have been happy with the call for Brown Bear conservation. In light of farmer’s worries over increased bear-livestock conflicts as populations rise, to ensure support from the rural populations -who are key to the success of any conservation efforts implemented, numerous factors must be considered [20]. The policy of compensation in the case of damages, while enacted to prevent the unlawful killing or capturing or Brown Bears, must be reviewed to ensure that the budget would not instead be more effective if spent to prevent wildlife-livestock conflicts in the first place [20]. Financial compensation does not always mitigate negative bear sentiments as claims can not be filed in the case of numerous small damages or in cases of complicated compensation procedures. In order for theses compensation to be effective, reforms to ensure that compensation is simple and timely must be enacted [20].

A key step forward for conservation is to ensure that there is enough government funding allocated to the study and conservation of the Brown Bear. The current estimates of Brown Bear populations do not have enough data to support their accuracy [20]. So, more concrete measurements must be laid in place in order to get a true reference of the Brown Bear’s situation as well as to accurately reflect on the efficacy of any conservation methods laid in place. This can be done even through relatively inexpensive methods - such as extracting DNA found in bear fur from barbed-wire-wrapped power poles. This sampling resulted in precise population estimates, even in comparison to traditional catch-and-release methods [20]. Through innovative methods like these, Greece and other countries in similar situations are able to efficiently spend resources, allowing for the most good to come of any funding allocated to conservation. This method gathers the density, abundance and genetic information needed to continuously monitor the long-lived population of Brown Bears a necessity to ensure their survival as a species [20].

Conclusion

Taking action is crucial to conserve Brown Bears in Greece's northern mountain range, where their population has dropped to under 500, pushing them to the brink of endangerment [1][12]. The Brown Bear population decline issue became prominent for decision-makers in the 1990s, with many conservation projects enacted in the early 2000s [15]. Projects were enacted quickly over the decade as the population decline was clearly attributed to the negative impact of humans on nature and wildlife[1].

There are currently several remedial actions on the international, local, and non-government levels. On an international level, several international agreements focus on protecting the habitat of Brown Bears through the European Green Belt and protecting them through the criminalization of poaching and trading[14]. On a national level, the Brown Bear is a fully protected species under federal law and is included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. The Greek government also established national parks to protect the dwindling Brown Bear population. On a non-government level, several conservation projects in Greece focus on conserving Brown Bears and improving their overall habitat[14].

Due to the nature of Brown Bear endangerment, the success of Brown Bear conservation largely depends on the support of rural people[20]. To garner support, actively providing financial compensation for agricultural damage caused by wildlife is a common management practice [20]. As a future solution, reforms and improvements of these compensation schemes are crucial, as well as ensuring there is enough government funding allocated to the study and conservation of the Brown Bear, seeing as its presence has a profound effect on the forest ecosystem across multiple trophic levels[7].

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Bonnet-Lebrun, A; Karamanlidis, A.A; De Gabriel Hernando, M; Renner, I; Giménez, O (2019). "Identifying priority conservation areas for a recovering brown bear population in Greece using citizen science data". Animal Conservation. 23(1): 83–93 – via ZSL publications.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Zedrosser, A; Dahle, B; Swenson, J; Gerstl, N (2001). http://legacy.callisto.gr/docs/Poster%20Bialowieza%20Summer%20School%202009.pdf "Status and Management of the Brown Bear in Europe" Check |url= value (help) (PDF). Ursus. 12: 9–20 – via JSTOR.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Vancura, Vlado (October 2023). "Brown bear in Europe". Wilderness Society. Retrieved 20 October 2023.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Profile: Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)". Euronatur. Retrieved 11 Dec 2023.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Psaralexi, M; Lazarina, M; Mertzanis, Y; Michaelidou, D; Sgardelis, S.P (2022). "Exploring 15 years of brown bear (Ursus arctos)-vehicle collisions in northwestern Greece". Nature and Conservation. 47: 105–119 – via Nature Conservation.
  6. ↑ Karamanlidis, A.A; Sanopoulos, A; Georgiadis, L; Zedrosser, A (2011). "Structural and economic aspects of human-bear conflicts in Greece". Ursus. 22(2): 141–151 – via JSTOR.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Ozkurt, Tim. "Romania's Brown Bears". Mossy Earth. Retrieved October 19, 2023.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "The Bear Necessities: Why Our Forests Need Bears". Nature Canada. July 25, 2022. Retrieved October 19, 2023.
  9. ↑ Karaiskou, Nikoleta (June 2014). "Greece: A Balkan Subrefuge for a Remnant Red Deer (Cervus Elaphus) Population". Journal of Heredity. 105: 334–344.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Zarzo-Arias, Alejandra (January 4, 2019). "Identifying potential areas of expansion for the endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain)". PLoS One. 14 – via PubMed Central.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Psaralexi, Maria (March 2022). [ttps://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.47.71348 "Exploring 15 years of brown bear (Ursus arctos)-vehicle collisions in northwestern Greece"]. Nature Conservation. 47: 105–119 – via DOAJ.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Natural Greece. greece.gr/tour-category/bear-tours/ "Bear Tours Archives" Check |url= value (help). Natural Greece. Retrieved 01 November, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Convention on Biodiversity. "Cultural and biological diversity". Convention on Biodiversity. Retrieved 02 November, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Reljic, Slaven; Jerina, Klemen; Nilsen, Erlend B.; Huber, Djuro; Kusak, Josip; Jonozovic, Marko; Linnell, John D.C. (October 2018). "Challenges for transboundary management of a European brown bear population". Global Ecology and Conservation. 16 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Swenson, Jon; Gerstl, Norbert; Dahle, Bjørn; Zedrosser, Andreas (2000). "Action Plan for the conservation of the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) in Europe" (PDF). Nature and environment. 114: 30–31.
  16. ↑ Tsalazidou-Founta, T.M.; Stasi, E.A.; Samara, M.; Mertzanis, Y. (2022). "Genetic Analysis and Status of Brown Bear Sub-Populations in Three National Parks of Greece Functioning as Strongholds for the Species' Conservation". Genes. 13: 1388 – via MDPI.
  17. ↑ Callisto. "Organization". Callisto. Retrieved 19 October, 2023. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  18. ↑ ΑΡΚΤΟΥΡΟΣ. "Conservation of brown bear and its habitats in Greece" (PDF).
  19. ↑ "New Brown Bear Project Just Started". Euronatur. May 12, 2022. Retrieved November 2, 2022.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Karamalidis, Alexandros (September, 2015). "Evidence of a large carnivore population recovery: Counting bears in Greece". Nature Conservation. 27: 10–17 – via Science Direct. Check date values in: |date= (help)
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