Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Solutions to Overfishing in the Mediterranean Sea

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Introduction

The Mediterranean Sea, located between the African and European continent has a limited water supply. The distribution is very uneven, and there is a big mismatch between the quantity available and needs of the environment and humans[1]. 75% of the supply is located in the northern region, while the south and east require the same amount, causing scarcity for approximately 180 million people in the countries in the same area (south and east)[1]. Despite this partial confinement and the limited size of its continental shelves the sea provides shelter for 5.5% of all global marine life.[2] Fishing has been done in these regions for thousands of years and led to various social trends such as migration, the emergence of cities and economic prosperity.

Overfishing has become a severe problem in the Mediterranean Sea, threatening marine populations, ecosystems, and biodiversity. In addition, it harms local economies due to its effect on the tourism and fishing industries.  Restoring the sea’s balance is key, however, significant changes need to be made in the human exploitation of the area. In the Mediterranean multiple marine protected areas (MPAs) and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are created[3][4]. Due to poor management of legislation and policies less than 20% see active conservation.[3] The vast majority of the fisheries in the Mediterranean ignore contemporary regulations on fishing locations and quantities. In addition, pirate fisheries who don’t follow any regulations, are active in the region.[5] This page explores the status quo and future of the Mediterranean ecosystems and what solutions can be implemented to resolve the sea’s struggles with overfishing and ecosystem decline.

Origin of fishing in the Mediterranean

The fishing in the Mediterranean dates to the earliest civilizations along the shores. Ancient Egyptians are known to have an extensive fishing practice along the Nile and its delta[6]. The Greek and Roman empires were also found to have engaged in fishing in the Mediterranean[7]. The Roman Empire at one point extended around almost the entire sea, calling it ‘Mare Nostrum’ which translates to ‘Our Sea’[8].

Fishing has always held a large significance for Mediterranean civilizations for various reasons. Beyond providing one of the most basic needs of nutrition, fishing also developed into an economical endeavor, supporting trade and commerce[2]. Mediterranean cultures revered fishing, incorporating it into their myths, art, and rituals, symbolizing the intertwined relationship between humans and the sea[9]. The abundance of marine resources facilitated population growth and urban development, shaping coastal communities[2]. Moreover, the Mediterranean's diverse fish species fostered culinary traditions, influencing regional cuisines. In essence, fishing was not merely a subsistence activity; it formed the cornerstone of Mediterranean life, impacting nutrition, economy, and culture.

Furthermore, fishing in the Mediterranean has seeded some techniques and practices that are currently still being used. A very well known and iconic form of fishing that finds its origin in this region is called ‘trawling’. This method involves dragging a net through the water, catching fish that finds along the way[7]. Currently, trawlers only represent about 10% of the fleet active in the sea, yet they still contribute about 50% of the total catch, indicating their ongoing relevance[10]. Additionally, the Romans were the first to build advanced infrastructure concerning fishing allowing preservation of their catch as well as enabling transportation and thus trade[11].

To this day, fishing remains a vital part of the Mediterranean and its identity, for both traditional, smaller scale operations as well as industrial and larger organizations[12]. Though, industrialization has made it more difficult for smaller businesses to earn their living[7]. Furthermore, these practices also have a significant impact on the ecosystem’s health and maintenance. Therefore, there are more and more efforts needed to ensure a sustainable fishing industry and a fruitful future.

Current situation in the Mediterranean

The Mediterranean is known for its vast variety of species as well as its cultural heritage. The dwindling fish stocks and overfishing are something that even ancient Romans dealt with [13].

3.1 The Mediterranean ecosystem

3.1.1 Ecosystem background / Oceanographic backdrop

The Mediterranean ocean is known for a wide variety of habitats and ecosystems. The sea is connected to both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Due to the flow between these water bodies a gradient can be seen in salinity, temperature and nutrient distribution [13]. The Mediterranean is also known to be oligotrophic, referring to its low nutrient concentration. This affects the primary production of various autotrophic species, and thus the basis of most ecosystems in the region[14]. The basis of this oligotrophication is the warming of the sea water, increasing its stratification, and preventing water exchange (and thus nutrient cycling) between the layers. In addition, coastal regions see a higher input of nutrients, which can be devastating for local food webs.

3.1.2 Species and Habitats

Due to the spatial variability in ocean conditions and the higher water temperatures a myriad of habitats developed. These form the foundations for unique species and environments, where temperate and tropical species co-exist [13]. More than 17,000 species have been identified out of which an estimated 600 are fish species. In total, 20% of all fish species are known to be endemic. This means that only in certain geographic regions these groups of species occur, which could make them vulnerable for extinction[15].

Examples of habitats that can be found are seagrass meadows, reefs and coastal ecosystems. Due to migration of species (birds, fish, etc.) conservation of the habitats is necessary for a healthy ecosystem and to support the presence of endemic species. Besides, the conservation status of many species is unknown, while for benthic species (living on the seafloor) no clear understanding of their ecosystem functioning has been found [13].  

Due to overfishing, the fisheries have branched out to the deeper regions of the Mediterranean (40% of current landings originate from the deep sea globally). These deep water ecosystems are essential for biodiversity and to maintain population sizes. other consequences are damages to the coral reefs and ocean floor, influencing breeding, spawning and feeding patterns of the habitat’s species[16].

3.1.3 Endangered species

As the water gets warmer, the ocean tends to get more stratified, decreasing the nutrient cycling to the upper water layers. This affects the total food web[10]. In addition, the creation of the Suez canal influenced the water cycling and introduced new (exotic) species into the area. Human pressures on the ecosystem, such as widespread fishing activity and water contamination, decrease the species resilience even more [13].

The main groups of species that are endangered belong to the group of Elasmobranchs (e.g. sharks, rays). In addition, some mammal species (only nine known in the Mediterranean) as well as turtles (seven known species) are declining in number [13].  Most of these species are regarded as apex predators, and thus balance the food chains of various ecosystems. Causes for the decline in population size are the slow growth and late breeding of these species, making it hard to recover from overfishing. Examples of the species are the Monk Seal, Short-fin Mako shark and the spiny butterfly ray[10].

Besides the by-catch species suffering, the population sizes for commercial fishing species are also fatigued. For 73% of species that are exploited it is more than the ecosystem can sustain (73% of the time). An example of these are European hake and red shrimp of which four times the acceptable amount is extracted. However, according to the FAO the degree of overfishing is going down, with seemingly a 10% decline of fish kinds in the danger zone[12].

3.2 Fisheries

Fishing has been part of Mediterranean culture since time immemorial. Both fishery practice and culinary use demonstrate how deeply involved the sea harvest is in local culture [12]. The fishing industry is cause for widespread international collaboration along the coast and provides an income for over 500.000 people, in all parts of the sector.

3.2.1 Fishing industry

The Mediterranean companies hook over 1 million tonnes of fish, with a revenue of 2.9 billion USD, a year using 85,200 vessels. Most of the fishing vessels are deemed elements of small-scale fisheries, participating in artisanal fishing with little environmental impact [12].

Other fishing vessels used in the industry are various kinds of trawlers and seiners, associated with industrial fishing. These vessels are often part of fleets responsible for large landings, with little regard for ecosystem health, maintaining stock, and bycatch [17].

3.2.2 Fishing yields and tailings

Though not the most abundant vessel type, Pelagic trawlers and purse seiners land over 48% of all fishing yields, whereas only 18% is caught by small-scale fisheries. The most abundantly caught species are Anchovies, herring and sardines. For various species an oscillating pattern is observed in tonnes per year. However, for demersal species, with habitats near the ocean floor, a steady decline has been seen since the 1990s [12].

3.2.3 Overfishing

When the fishing rate is larger than the population’s growth rate, a yearly decline in fish stocks occurs. The discrepancy between these rates causes a (rapid) cutback in population size. As technology improves, new vessels have been designed that more easily locate and catch fish. They are known to catch large quantities of fish, while also having the largest waste to landing ratio. In addition they contribute to overfishing as due to size considerations they can not differentiate based on size, leading to relatively young and vulnerable populations. The development of these industrial fleets is a reaction due to the growing human population on the Mediterranean coasts. high profits, lead to further investments and development, worsening the problem of overfishing [18].

Another problem related to overfishing is by-catch. Due to the increased speed and size the fishing ships do not differentiate between species. Most of the species that are critically endangered, are not the aim of the fisheries industry, but considered by-catch and disposed of as waste (e.g. most mammals, sharks and rays). Due to the industrial fishing techniques used, this by-catch is no longer alive.  It is estimated that 40% of the caught fish is discarded in the industrial fleets [10] .

3.2.4 Small scale fisheries

A separate group of the fishing industry are the small-scale or artisanal fisheries (SSFs), known for their efficient and sustainable fishing. This part of the industry is characterized by small vessels with few, often local employees, that are vital parts to their communities and culture. Fishing by SSFs takes place close to shore, while fishing variable species, using non-invasive gears. In addition, SSFs show lowest fuel use per kilo of fish brought to shore, reducing their carbon footprint. This type of fishing, often culturally embedded, is essential for local livelihoods and nutrition, and further underlines the guardianship status it inhabits. Besides conservation methods, consumer based support for this industry could prove impactful to reduce pressure on the Mediterranean fish populations [19].

Current conservation plans

Due to the overfishing various regulations and policies had to be implemented.

Regulations and policies

Common Fisheries Policy

The CFP, common fisheries policy of the European Union, entails rules and regulations for sustainably managing European Union fishing fleets and conserving fish stocks.[20] The CFP sets the TACs, total allowable catches, which are catch quotas that are put in place for most commercial fish stocks.[21] Since 2015 they have enforced a maximum sustainable yield, hoping that the fish stocks would be recovered by 2020. In addition, a fleet capacity ceiling per EU country was installed which will provide a long-term balance between fishing capacity and fishing opportunities.[20]

The European Green Deal

Fisheries management measures alone are not enough to improve the sustainability of marine ecosystems. The European Green Deal is an integrated policy approach that supports the CFP. The European Green Deal priorities focused on the oceans are:[22]

  • Protecting our biodiversity and ecosystems,
  • Reducing air, water and soil pollution,
  • Moving towards a circular economy,
  • Improving waste management,
  • Ensuring the sustainability of our blue economy and fisheries sectors[22]

Marine Protected Areas

Nowadays, 9.68% of the Mediterranean Sea is considered to be MPA, Marine Protected Area.[3] MPAs are seen as an effective tool for protecting the whole marine ecosystem.[4] Most of these MPAs are located in the northern parts of the area.[4] There are 3 ways in which a MPA can be managed[23]:

  1. Partially protected, where some uses are prohibited but some extractive activities are allowed and regulated.
  2. Fully protected, where all extractive and destructive activities are forbidden, except as needed for scientific monitoring. No-take areas.
  3. Multiple-use area, a combination of the first two.

In 2020 only 0.04% was a no-take/fully protected zone. In addition, only 18% of these MPAs have an implemented management plan.[24]

Example of protected area

One example of a MPA is in Portofino, Italy[25]. This MPA was established in 1999 to protect the unique marine biodiversity and to encourage sustainable use on a local scale. The Portofino MPA is 385 ha big and contains three different zones[26]:

Zone A - no take zone

Zone B - general reserve where swimming, scuba diving, yachting and fishing activities are regulated.

Zone C - partial reserve where the transit and the diving are free and the sport fishing is checked.

Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures

OECMs are defined by the CBD as: “A geographically defined area other than a protected area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values.”[3]

Marine Stewardship Council

The Marine Stewardship Council was founded in response to overfishing. The MSC can certify fish yield when the fishery is up to the Fisheries Standard: “The MSC Fisheries Standard is a set of requirements that ensure fisheries aiming to be certified as environmentally sustainable only target stocks that are abundant and able to replenish themselves, and that fisheries minimise their impact on the wider marine ecosystem.”[27]

Research shows that targeted fish populations by MSC-certified fisheries perform better than those targeted by non-MSC populations[28].

Future conservation plans

In envisioning the future of conservation efforts in the Mediterranean, a multifaceted approach should be implemented to safeguard the region's unique biodiversity and marine ecosystems. The year 2030 sets a pivotal milestone, with ambitious goals aiming to reverse the trends of environmental degradation in various aspects[29].

Cutting-edge technology plays an increasingly more important role, with advanced monitoring systems and satellite imagery aiding in the assessment of marine health[30].

In response to climate change, innovative engineering solutions like the construction of artificial reefs[31] and the implementation of underwater carbon sequestration projects gain prominence[32].

Though new conservation plans might be promising, there is still a lot of gain to be made in ensuring strict and full execution of the current plans that already exist. Since as discussed above, a lot of the current plans are not being properly managed[24]. Actively controlling and carrying out and potentially expanding these current policies should therefore also have a big priority.

Bradai, Saidi and Enajjarr[10] further highlighted some additional precautions that could be taken. For example, to fish deeper and during the day, to not disturb some species in their normal swim area and activity window (e.g. sharks, stingrays). Selectively picking bait (like mackerel) and the development of artificial and/or pretreated bait (small steel magnets, boron) is also an effective measure to further prevent the sharks and stingrays from being caught. Lastly, they found that not discarding garbage (organic waste and other) could also help in avoiding attracting these animals, and that ensuring a fast release in the cases they do get caught is also beneficial to their survival[10].

Benefits of conservation

Conservation and prevention of overfishing in the Mediterranean bring about multiple benefits, concerning environmental sustainability and even economic prosperity in the long run. Preservation of biodiversity is a key advantage of conservation initiatives. The Mediterranean hosts a diverse range of marine species, some of which are exclusive to the region[13]. Overfishing poses a significant threat to this delicate ecosystem by disrupting the balance and causing the decline or extinction of certain species[10]. Implementing conservation measures, such as marine protected areas and regulated fishing quotas, is crucial for maintaining the biodiversity of the Mediterranean and ensuring the health of its marine environment[21][4].

In addition to safeguarding biodiversity, conservation contributes to the sustainability of fisheries. Overfishing depletes fish populations, making it economically unsustainable in the long run and jeopardizing the livelihoods of fishing communities. By promoting responsible fishing practices and enforcing catch limits, conservation measures help maintain healthy fish stocks, ensuring a stable and sustainable income for those dependent on the fishing industry[33].

These measures play a crucial role in maintaining the health and resilience of the Mediterranean ecosystem while supporting the economic well-being of the communities dependent on its resources. Essentially, fish are a renewable source, if we manage that source effectively, it can ensure endless gain and welfare for society, not only in terms of food but also in profit and job opportunities[33]. Moreover, we will simultaneously be taking proper care of the animals and ecosystem that provide this comfort for us.

References

Seekiefer (Pinus halepensis) 9months-fromtop.jpg
 This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200. It is shared under a CC-BY 4.0 International License.
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Fader, Marianela; Giupponi, Carlo; Burak, Selmin; Dakhlaoui, Hamouda; Koutroulis, Aristeidis; Lange, Manfred A.; Llasat, Maria Carmen; Pulido-Valezquez, David; Sanz-Cobena, Alberto (17 November 2020). "First Mediterranean Assessment Report – Chapter 3.1: Resources – Water". MedECC, Mediterranean Experts on Climate and environmental Change. 1 – via Zenodo.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Farrugio, H; Oliver, P; Biagi, F (1993). "An overview of the history, knowledge, recent and future research trends in Mediterranean fisheries" (PDF). Scientia Marina.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Gomei, M; Steenbeek, J; Coll, M; Claudet, J (2021). 30 by 30: Scenarios to recover biodiversity and rebuild fish stocks in the Mediterranean. Rome, Italy.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Bradai, M N; Ed SPA/RAC (2020). Action Plan for the Conservation of Cartilaginous Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea. SPA/RAC–UN Environment/MAP. p. 18.
  5. ↑ Greenpeace International (14 July 2006). "Mediterranean Sea – Threats and Solutions". Greenpeace.
  6. ↑ Feidi, Izzat (April 2001). "Gift of the Nile" (PDF). ICSF.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Faget, Daniel; Sacchi, Jacques (12 December 2014). "Fishing in the Mediterranean, Past and Present: History and Technical Changes". Development of Marine Resources: 1–55 – via Wiley library.
  8. ↑ Hess, Peter (31 July 2015). "Mare Nostrum?".
  9. ↑ Matvejevic, Predrag (University of California Press). Mediterranean: A Cultural Landscape. ISBN 9780520207387. Check date values in: |year= (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Bradai, Mohamed Nejmeddine; Saidi, Bechir; Enajjar, Samira (1 August 2018). "Overview on Mediterranean Shark's Fisheries: Impact on the Biodiversity". Marine Ecology - Biotic and Abiotic Interactions – via IntechOpen.
  11. ↑ Marzano, Annalisa (5 July 2018). "Fish and Fishing in the Roman World". Journal of Maritime Archaeology. 13: 437–447 – via Springer.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 FAO (2022). The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries 2022. Rome: FAO. ISBN 9789251373705.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Coll, Marta; Piroddi, Chiara; Steenbeek, Jeroen; Kaschner, Kirstin; Ben Rais Lasram, Frida; Aguzzi, Jacopo; Ballesteros, Enric; Bianci, Carlo Nike; Corbera, Jordi (August 2, 2010). "The Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea: Estimates, Patterns, and Threats". PloS one. 5.
  14. ↑ Agusti, Susana; Martinez-Ayala, Juan; Regaudie-de-Gioux, Aurore; Duarte, Carlos M. (22 December 2017). "Oligotrophication and Metabolic Slowing-Down of a NW Mediterranean Coastal Ecosystem". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4 – via Frontiers.
  15. ↑ Hobohm, C.; Tucker, C.M. (2013). "The Increasing Importance of Endemism: Responsibility, the Media and Education". endemism in Vascular Plants: 3–9.
  16. ↑ Maiorano, P; Capezzuto, F; Carluccio, A; Calculli, C; Cipriano, G; Carlucci, R; Ricci, P; Sion, L; Tursi, A (13 May 2022). "Food from the Depths of the Mediterranean: The Role of Habitats, Changes in the Sea-Bottom Temperature and Fishing Pressure". Foods – via MDPI.
  17. ↑ Said, A.; Tzanopoulos, J.; MacMillan, D. (2018). "The Contested Commons; The failure of EU fisheries Policy and Governance in the Mediterranean and the Crisis Enveloping the Small-Scale Fisheries of Malta". Frontiers in Marine Science. 5 – via Frontiers.
  18. ↑ Gupta, A. (2017). There's something fishy in the mediterranean: the harmful impact of overfishing on biodiversity. Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum.
  19. ↑ Penca, J.; Cavalle, M.; Libralato, S.; Said, S.; O'riordan, B.; Nader, M. (2021). Market opportunities for artisanal and small-scale fisheries products for sustainability of the Mediterranean Sea: Towards an Innovative Labeling Scheme. EMUNI University. ISBN ISBN: ISBN 978-961-6805-10-0 Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help).
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Common fisheries policy (CFP)". European Commission.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Fishing quotas". European Commission. October 25 2023. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "The common fisheries policy today and tomorrow". European Commission. 2023.
  23. ↑ Lubchenco, Jane; Grorud-Colvert, Kirsten; Guidetti, Paolo; Giakoumi, Sylvaine (November 2016). "The Science of Marine Protected Areas - Mediterranean Sea". PISCO – via Research Gate.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 UN environment programme (November 2021). "The system of Mediterranean MPAs in 2020". MedPan.
  25. ↑ "MPA Portofino". MMMPA.
  26. ↑ "SPAMIs". SPA/RAC.
  27. ↑ "What is overfishing". Marine Stewardship Council.
  28. ↑ Melnychuk, Michael; Veneziano, Alessio; Lees, Samantha; Rasal, Jennifer; Koerner, Lauren; Hair, Peter; Costalago, David; Hively, David; Jardim, Ernesto (1 September 2022). "Wild-caught fish populations targeted by MSC-certified fisheries have higher relative abundance than non-MSC populations". Frontiers in Marine Science. 9 – via Frontiers.
  29. ↑ Shulla, Kalterina; Leal Filho, Walter (January 2023). "Achieving the UN Agenda 2030: Overall actions for the successful implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals before and after the 2030 deadline" (PDF). Policy Department, Directorate-General for External Policies.
  30. ↑ Bianchi, Carlo Nike; Azzola, Annalisa; Cocito, Silvia; Morri, Carla; Oprandi, Alice; Peirano, Andrea; Sgorbini, Sergio; Montefalcone, Monica (10 January 2022). "Biodiversity Monitoring in Mediterranean Marine Protected Areas: Scientific and Methodological Challenges". Diversity. 14 – via MDPI.
  31. ↑ Paxton, Avery; Shertzer, Kyle; Bacheler, Nathan; Kellison, Todd; Riley, Kenneth; Taylor, J. Christopher (7 May 2020). "Meta-Analysis Reveals Artificial Reefs Can Be Effective Tools for Fish Community Enhancement but Are Not One-Size-Fits-All". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7 – via Frontiers.
  32. ↑ Pessarrodona, Albert; Franco-Santos, Rita; Wright, Luca Seamus; Vanderklift, Matthew; Howard, Jennifer; Pidgeon, Emily; Wernberg, Thomas; Filbee-Dexter, Karen (12 July 2023). "Carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation using macroalgae: a state of knowledge review". Biological reviews. 98: 1945–1971 – via Wiley online library.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Esteban, Aniol; Wood, Roslyn (15 April 2013). "Sustainable fisheries make economic sense". New Economics Foundation.
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