Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Landscape Conservation Using Traditional Wine Cultivation Methods in Italy

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Introduction

Breakdown of Wine Exports in 2022. Data derived from the Annual Assessment of the World Vine and Wine Sector.[1]
Wine-growing farm in the Chianti region, Italy, 2012.

Traditional wine cultivation in Italy has shaped landscapes and culture for centuries. From Senator Stefano Jacini's surveys in 1961 linking agriculture to various factors to the modern era of large-scale production, Italy's viticulture has evolved dramatically.[2][3] While traditional methods emphasized slow, land-respecting practices, modern viticulture embraced monocrops and technology, leading to environmental impacts like soil degradation and biodiversity loss. [4][5] Balancing tradition and innovation is key to preserving Italy's landscapes and heritage in the evolving wine industry. As of 2022, Italy is the first-largest producer and exporter of wine, producing 49.8 mhl of wine and exporting 21.9 mhl. [6] The organic and biodynamic sector of wine production has been increasing steadyily, and has been shown to have positive impacts on the environment.[7]

History of Wine in Italy

Drinking festival in wine cellar. Origin: Italy. Date: 1575 – 1613. Object ID: RP-P-OB-38.152. Creator: Antonio Tempesta, print maker, Italiaans (1555–1630)

The Italian peninsula in ancient times was referred to as Enotria, "the land of the wine." The origins of wine in Italy are impossible to pinpoint, as stories and myths make up much of history. [2] [8] However, wine has been important for Italian society and economy in ancient times and continues to provide income to winemakers and the state. The historical popularity of wine has depended on religious factors, such as the use of wine for the Christian Eucharist, and the use of wine for entertainment. [3]

Vineyards (Chardonnay) at the Villa Bettoni-Cazzago in Cazzago San Martino Italy - Walls on the left going back to the XIth century, The first vinyards were certified AD 1701
Vineyards (Chardonnay) at the Villa Bettoni-Cazzago in Cazzago San Martino Italy - Walls on the left going back to the XIth century, The first vineyards were certified AD 1701. This Photo was taken by Wolfgang Moroder.

Senator Stefano Jacini conducted the first major agricultural survey after the unification of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, linking the varying agriculture techniques to climate, history, institutions, and social conditions. [9] [10] The Kingdom of Italy drafted a catalog for the Paris exhibition of 1862 that exemplified the fact that there were vineyards in every part of the Italian peninsula, from the Alpine valleys in the north to the island of Pantelleria in the south.[3] This indicates, and continues to indicate, a large variety of grapes and forms of cultivation depending on the attributes of the vineyard location.

At the beginning of the 1870s, wine consumed by most Italian people was low quality, as production was family-based or to supply the local market, where low quality wine was preferred, since foreign wines were 'not strong enough'.[2] [3]The wealthier Italians would import quality wines from France, Germany, and Hungary. Economic opportunity induced radical change in wine quality, production, and export to present day as Italy now shares the world record in wine production and exportation.

Technical Aspects of Wine Cultivation in Italy

Italian Wine Regions

Exports amount to 21% of the world market at 21.9 million hectoliters.[3]The largest proportions of wine-growing farms are located in the South (36%), while the Northeast have 21%, the Center has 19%, the Islands have 15% and the Northwest have 9%. However, in terms of areas that bear vines, the South is much smaller (25%), whereas the share of NE (27%) and of the Islands (20%) is larger. The areas with the most prestige are Tuscany, Piedmont, and Veneto for red wines, and Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto, and Friuli for white wines. [11]

Hillside vineyards in Piemonte, Italy, 2011.

Italy has 369,000 farms cultivating wine grapes, 55,000 establishments wine making and 8000 establishments bottling. [12] Most of these wine-growing farms are small businesses, and predominately family-operated (99%). Only 0.6% of farms are owned by companies. The share of family farms is 91% in terms of area. The average size of a vineyard is 1.7 ha, and two thirds of farms have less than 1 ha of vineyard. In the Center and South, 7% of farms have more than 5 ha of vineyards whereas in the NW, NE, and Islands, 10% of farms have more than 5 ha of vineyard. However, while only 5% of wine farms total are over 5 ha, they account for 54% of vineyard area. Farms larger than 10 ha account for 35% of vineyards. Only 12% of vineyard area consists of farms of less than 1 ha. [12]

According to the National Register of Vine Varieties, more than 500 vine varieties are grown, most of which are native varieties. The most widespread variety - Sangiovese - covers 11.4% of total wine grape area. All other varieties cover less than 6% of total area. 21% of total vine-bearing areas is irrigated, and the remainder is water fed. Wine-growing is predominately in the hills (58%). In the Center (Tuscany) and the NW (Piedmont), wine-growing is almost exclusively in the hills. Altitude makes mechanization difficult, especially for harvesting on hills. Thus, large-scale low-cost vines are predominately produced on plains whereas farms on hills have a lower yield, but are higher quality. While climate conditions determine exact yields year to year, Italy produces between 40 and 45 million hectoliters on average. [12]

New vs. Traditional Cultivation Techniques

Traditional Cultivation Techniques

Grape harvest: Vendemmia, 1940.

Traditional landscapes refer to those that have been managed for a long period of time with an emphasis on slow changes in respect to the environment. [4] Historically, grapes have been cultivated on traditional landscapes with an emphasis on the slow process and caring for the land. The extreme landscapes with steep slopes also made the process of wine cultivation a much more rigorous process long ago. [13] Wine has been consumed for thousands of years in many different cultures, meaning there is great tradition in how grapes are grown and wine is produced. Historically, grape cultivation was associated with the cultivation of other crops and the movement of livestock.[5] Each region of Italy cultivated grapes differently, each with their own methods of caring for the land.[4] In early wine production, there were landowners and sharecroppers who cultivated wines in small plots of lands with many productions, such as mulberries. [3] During the twentieth century, investors came in to select specific vines and modify systems used for grape harvest to increase yield and improve the quality of wine to meet foreign consumer's taste. [3]

New Cultivation Techniques

Grape harvesting machinery in operation at a vineyard, 2004.

As viticulture evolved over the last century, monocrop systems have taken over the industry. The market-economy, increased technology, and large-scale production shifted the way that wine is produced and grapes are harvested. [4] Monocrops are highly dependent on inputs, in order to control grape production. [5] Newer methods plant crops much closer together, to increase yield. [4] Unlike traditional methods, most wineries use the same methods and machinery to harvest grapes. There is much more simplification and unity in methods. Gradually, cultivation technology moved away from ancient ceramic tools, to traditional wood tools, to modern metal machinery. [4][14] Viticulture technology is experiencing changes due to landscape changes because of climate change. Technology is not only changing to increase yield, quality, and quality, but also to adapt to the changing climate. [15] Sensor technology allows farmers to gain valuable information about the water, nutrients, disease, and composition of the grapes they are harvesting, as well as the vineyard landscape. [15] Many of the manual labor jobs involved in grape cultivation will likely be replaced by modern machinery and robots.

Impacts of New Wine Cultivation Techniques

Disinfestation of a vineyard with pesticides, 1930.

The process of wine cultivation, similar to other fields of agriculture; can have serious implications for local land, and for the environment as a whole. [16]Since the arrival of newer wine cultivation techniques, the production of wine has become much less sustainable than before. We can see this through the use of monocropping, and a new mindset to increase yield. Monocropping depletes soil nutrients more than diverse plots of land or the use of cover crops which enrich the soil. This means in the long term, soil health and nutrients greatly decline. Modern large scale wine cultivation lacks an emphasis on caring for the land, and instead focuses on the high levels of production that need to be carried out in order to meet global demand.

The impacts of large-scale wine production include pollution of the local air and water through the use of pesticides and farming equipment. Pesticides not only cause soil degradation in the areas that they are used, but also affect regional soils and watersheds through groundwater contamination and runoff. [17]Areas with high wine production experience various side effects of this practice. These symptoms include soil degradation and loss of biodiversity. This can be seen through high rates of soil erosion, decreased soil fertility, and groundwater contamination.[18] Additionally, large plots of argicultural land contribue to organisms experiencing habitat loss and fragmentation, which is among the leading threats to conserving global biodiversity. These inputs of production not only affect local soil and water conditions but also contribute to global Greenhouse Gas emissions. This mainly results from large scale farming equipment being very fuel inefficient. Additional global impacts can be seen in the large-scale production of glass bottles for distribution, with many of these bottles going unrecycled or not being reused by wineries. [19]

Case Studies

Panzano's Transition to Organic Viticulture

Panzano, Italy

The transition towards organic agriculture in Panzano, Italy, stands as a useful case study addressing the pressing concern surrounding the slow pace of sustainability transformations. The study, employing a mix of document analysis, participant observation, and face-to-face interviews conducted in 2019, delves into the territorially embedded innovation ecosystems that played a crucial role in expediting these transformations. The three discerned phases in Panzano's evolution from traditional to organically produced wine reflect the urgency expressed in the broader focus on sustainability.[20]

The first phase, also known as the Emergence phase (1992–2000), sparked by a regional crisis, where a sense of environmental responsibility was absorbed by newcomers, leading to the initiation of organic wine production. Despite there being little community spirit initially, a commitment to sustainable practices began to grow in popularity. The crisis was characterized by excessive wine production and inferior quality, and forced a reduction in harvests as well as a shift towards more sustainable viticulture. The introduction of newcomers, driven not only by investment but also by life-choices to reside in Panzano, marked a departure from the trend seen in other regions where foreign buyers treated farms only as investments. Instead, these newcomers, sharing a similar philosophy of life, were committed from the beginning to organic wine production, which reflected a deep sense of responsibility to the environment and their families.[20]

Organic vineyard in Chianti, Italy - a neighboring town of Panzano.

The subsequent Acceleration phase (2000–2016) was initiated by a critical event in 2000 when the Italian Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry mandated the use of chemicals to combat the Golden Flavescence disease. This crisis prompted the Panzano Winemakers Association to propose an alternative monitoring program, which successfully demonstrated the absence of the disease and avoided the mandated use of pesticides. The success of this system made the bonds among producers stronger and demonstrated the accomplishments of collective action. This phase brought the establishment of SPEVIS in 2005, an experimental agronomical center founded in collaboration with local producers and research institutes. SPEVIS provided free advice and support to any local producer interested in transitioning to organic wine production, acting as a key player in the acceleration of Panzano's organic viticulture.[20]

Continuing into the Stabilization and Scaling-Up phase (2016 onwards), the success of Panzano extended beyond its borders, influencing the establishment of the Bio-district of Greve in Chianti. This bio-district aimed to bridge gaps between farmers and citizens, fostering a common goal to build shared visions about the region's potential. The case of Panzano is reflective of the broader research objective, showing how transformations can unfold at an accelerated pace, addressing the need for urgent sustainability transitions. Place-based agency is exemplified in Panzano's journey, emphasizing the critical role of territorially embedded structures and collaborative agency. The connection between actors in Panzano's innovation ecosystem offers valuable insights for those addressing the challenge of accelerating sustainability transformations. This success serves as an inspiring model, illustrating the potential impact of regional approaches in achieving rapid and effective transitions towards sustainable practices.[20]

Grass Cover vs. Traditional Tillage in Peidmont, Italy

Grass cover being used in a vineyard.

Within the domain of viticulture, the preservation of vineyard soils is crucial, given the susceptibility to threats such as soil compaction and erosion. These threats lead to impacts on wine production and the provisioning of vital ecosystem services. The management of inter-row soils is very important, acting as a decisive factor in shaping the vineyard's response to diverse rainfall events by influencing runoff and soil erosion dynamics. This 3 year study in Piedmont, Italy, acknowledges the efficacy of cover crops as a recognized measure for water and soil conservation. This comprehensive investigation aimed to assess the effectiveness of grass cover vis-à-vis tillage as a soil water conservation measure. Through the study, it was crucial to consider the influence of varied rainfall events and tractor traffic on the hydrological responses within the vineyard ecosystem.[21]

Spanning from November 2016 to December 2019, the study integrated continuous monitoring of climate variables, runoff patterns, and soil losses alongside vineyard management operations. The study period encompassed extreme weather, including the driest and wettest years in the last two decades. Through comparative analysis of two vineyard plots—one managed with permanent grass cover and the other with traditional tillage—the research attempted to discern the various outcomes in runoff and soil erosion. Additionally, the influence of tractor traffic, a major factor in viticultural practices, was systematically incorporated into the study's framework.[21]

Tractor traffic within a traditional vineyard.

The findings yielded practical insights, noting that runoff volume primarily depended on soil management practices, while sediment yield exhibited susceptibility to precipitation events. Grass cover emerged as a strong mitigator, reducing runoff by a remarkable 65% when compared to that of the traditional tillage vineyard plot, with highest efficacy observed during intense precipitation. Additionally, the protective influence extended to soil losses, which on average, reduced to soil loss by 72%. Particularly during intense and erosive weather, grass cover demonstrated its value by reducing soil losses by 74%. It is important to note that, despite the overall protective benefits, the efficiency of grass cover varied depending on the duration and intensity of rainfall.[21]

The study also illuminated the impact of tractor traffic on water infiltration, emphasizing its potential role in diminishing the replenishment of soil through effective water recharge. This analysis of the impacts of grass cover within the vineyard ecosystem not only reaffirms its standing as a strong conservation measure during diverse weather, but also sheds light on the increasing relevance of such sustainable practices in the face of climate change.[21]

Outlook and Solutions

As the awareness for environmental consequences of human impact on landscape has increased, sustainability has become on of the main objectives of many institutions and and organizations at regional, national and international levels. The United Nations 2030 Agenda for sustainable development specifically aims to "promote sustainable agriculture" (Goal 2) and "ensure sustainable consumption and production" (Goal 12). [22] Viticulture is shifting towards more sustaiable production patterns.

Organic and Biodynamic Management Systems

Biodynamic wine producer Steve Lubiana with vineyard compost

Environmentally sustainable viticulture practices, such as organic and biodynamic methods, have been pushed by institutions, producers, and consumers. [7] Both organic and biodynamic management systems are characterized by low chemical inputs and fostering ecological stability of the grapevine. Examples of common practices include low tillage or no-tillage, the use of green manure and/or composted farmyard manure, integration with other crops, and ban on pesticides, syntheicic fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms. Both organic and biodynamic management systems have been shown to decrease negative environmental impact, with biodynamic wine being more environmentally friendly than organic wine.[7]

Organic viticulture is characterized by the avoidance of synthetic plant protection substances and mineral fertilizers. Organic products are regulated by the European Union (EU) based on common legislation that covers the supervision of techniques, compliance, and labeling.[23]

Biodynamic agriculture was developed based on conferences by philisopher Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s, and is a subset of organic agriculture. Biodynamic agriculture considered a holistic approach with natural resources by taking into account the sustainability of inputs and outputs and preseving soil and its microorganisms to recover, preserve, or improve ecological harmony.[23] External outputs are reduced to a minimum and are replaced by homeopathic treatements and preparations based on infusions or plant extracts. [23] In order to recieve certification for biodynamic at a cultivation site, previous certification as an organic agricultural production site is required, and sites must undergo a three year conversion period from traditional methods. Studies have linked biodynamic agriculture to positively influencing soil strucutre and microorganisms and improving fertility and microbial biodiversity of the soil.

Organic and biodynamic wines are considered to be exceptional quality due to their organoleptic characteristics, with with higher doses of polyphenols and lower concentrations of sulphites.[23] Producers have reconized the opportunity in the industry to increase their sales with organic and biodynamic wines, as research has shown that consumers prefer local and sustainable wine, and would be wiling to pay a higher price.[24] [25]The organic wine market has been growing, with the area of organic grape cultivation progressin from 87,655 ha in 2004 to 467,760 ha in 2019. As of 2022, Italy has approximately 70 biodynamic wine farms (accurate data is difficult to source as biodynamic vinyards are included in the organic producers group statistically). The adoption of sustainable and circular approaches to agriculture, such as collecting and compositing waste to then reuse in vinyards as organic compost, has generated positive environmental outcomes and sustiabability, with a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improved cost savings.[26]

Technical Solution:

In a study analyzing environmental factors influencing wine cultivation in Northwest Italy, including climate, slope, aspect, and soils, Stanchi et al. (2013) concluded that areas below 950m in lower basins offer a favorable climate, exposure, and manageable slope angles for vine cultivation, without excessive environmental and economic challenges. Costantini et al. (2008) recommend three key practices. The first was to retain the subsurface B horizon when establishing new vineyards to avoid adverse effects. He recommended limiting vineyard slopes to 21% or less to reduce soil erosion and management difficulties. He also recommended aligning the vineyard's shape with slope morphology to avoid the creation of long, wide and uniform slopes. The aim should be to limit the length of the fields to less than 150–300m and to adopt or preserve the contour management systems.

Cultural Solutions:

From a cultural point of view, developing ways to preserve the traditional and historical values of wine cultivation would promote the cultural diversity and identity of wine regions. It would highlight the sustainable roots of early wine cultivation in Italy would recenter the values winemaking in Italy originally had. Making ways to educate consumers and producers about the social and environmental benefits of wine consumption and production also would aid in centering a sustainable perspective in the world wine cultivation in Italy.

Economic Solutions:

Providing financial incentives through payment for ecosystem services would incentivize the use of sustainable practices. Payment for ecosystem services is a concept that involves rewarding the providers of ecosystem services, such as watershed protection, carbon sequestration, or biodiversity conservation, with financial incentives or other benefits.[27] It is to prioritize and incentivize sustainable practices in cultivation practices. The framework must be designed in a way that defines clear and measurable environmental outcomes, establishes reliable and transparent payment mechanisms, and monitors and evaluates the impacts and costs[27].

Legal Solutions:

Wine Cultivators should continue to engage in the policy-making and governance processes. An example of a policy to engage in is the EU wine policy, which aims to address the challenges and opportunities of the wine sector, such as climate change, market competition, consumer preferences, and sustainability[28].

Conclusion

The evolution of wine cultivation in Italy shows a dynamic journey, seen as a transition of rich history into the complexities of modern viticulture. From the ancient allure of Enotria to the meticulous surveys of Senator Stefano Jacini, the trajectory of Italian wine production has been both storied and transformative.[9] The combination of tradition and innovation stands as an anchor for sustaining Italy's landscapes and heritage while dealing with the contemporary challenges posed by monocrops, technological shifts, and environmental impact.[5][14] The balance of historical practices and emergent technologies reflects a delicate mix of respecting the land and meeting economic demands. The case study of Panzano provides a strong perspective of fast sustainability transformation, backed by a three-phase evolution driven by environmental crises, collaborative efforts, and regional innovation ecosystems.[20]

The history of Italian viticulture, along with the modern shifts of the industry, represents a contrast that underscores the inherent tension between tradition and innovation. The adoption of organic and biodynamic practices offers a promising path forward, meeting global sustainability goals and responding to a specific consumer base.[4] The certification of organic and biodynamic wines, complimented by their exceptional quality, points to a growing market preference for sustainable and locally sourced products.[24]

Examining the technical aspects, the critical role of soil preservation, particularly in the Piedmont region, is crucial for sustainable viticulture.[21] The efficacy of cover crops, demonstrated in a three-year study, showcases an understanding of the relationship between soil management practices, rainfall events, and tractor traffic.[21] This study not only reaffirms the protective benefits of grass cover but also confirms its relevance regarding anticipated climate change scenarios.

Solutions for sustainable viticulture extend beyond organic practices, including technical, cultural, economic, and legal dimensions. Retaining subsurface horizons and aligning vineyards with slope morphology are significant physical adaptations to viticulture.[23] Additionally, preserving cultural values, incentivizing sustainable practices through payments for ecosystem services, and active engagement in policy-making shape a reliable framework for the future of Italian wine cultivation.[27][28]

As the global community increasingly recognizes the imperative for sustainable practices, the Italian wine industry is standing at the junction of historical roots and forward-looking solutions. The future requires a blend of tradition and innovation, a commitment to preserving landscapes, and a collective effort to navigate the evolving culture of Italian wine cultivation towards a sustainable and resilient future.

References

  1. ↑ "Annual Assessment of the World Vine and Wine Sector in 2022" (PDF). 12/10/23. Retrieved 12/10/23. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Unwin, T. (2005). Wine and the vine: an historical geography of viticulture and the wine trade. Routledge.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Vaquero Piñeiro, Manuel (2022). A History of Italian Wine Culture, Economics, and Environment in the Nineteenth through Twenty-First Centuries. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-031-06096-0.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Torquati, Biancamaria (2015). "Economic analysis of the traditional cultural vineyard landscapes in Italy". Journal of Rural Studies. 39: 122–132 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Oller, Pablo (2021). "Structure and management of traditional agroforestry vineyards in the high valleys of southern Bolivia". Agroforest Syst. 96: 375–386 – via Springer Link.
  6. ↑ Annual assessment of the World Vine and wine sector in 2022 - oiv.int. (n.d.). https://www.oiv.int/sites/default/files/documents/OIV_Annual_Assessment-2023.pdf
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Masotti, Paola, Andrea Zattera, Mario Malagoli, and Paolo Bogoni. 2022. "Environmental Impacts of Organic and Biodynamic Wine Produced in Northeast Italy" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 6281. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106281
  8. ↑ Lukacs, P. (2013). Inventing Wine: A New History of One of the World's Most Ancient Pleasures: A New History of One of the World's Most Ancient Pleasures. WW Norton & Company.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Masini, F., & Coci, G. (2020). Relazione finale.
  10. ↑ Biagioli, G. (2014). The Jacini Enquiry in Italy, 1877-1885. In The Golden Age of State Enquiries: Rural Enquiries in the Nineteenth Century. From Fact Gathering to Political Instrument (pp. 109-128).
  11. ↑ Corsi, A., Mazzarino, S., & Pomarici, E.The italian wine industry. The palgrave handbook of wine industry economics (pp. 47-76). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98633-3_3
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Corsi, Alessandro (2019). The Italian Wine Industry. Cham Palgrave Macmilla. ISBN 978-3-319-98633-3.
  13. ↑ Tarolli, Paolo (2023). "Heroic viticulture: Environmental and socioeconomic challenges of unique heritage landscapes". iScience. 26 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Bouby, Laurent (2023). "The Holocene history of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) and viticulture in France retraced from a large-scale archaeobotanical dataset". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 625 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Tardaguila, Javier (2021). "Smart applications and digital technologies in viticulture: A review". Smart Agricultural Technology. 1 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  16. ↑ Laca, Amanda (2021). "Assessment of the environmental impacts associated with vineyards and winemaking. A case study in mountain areas". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28: 1204–1223.
  17. ↑ Thiollet-Scholtus, Marie (June 2013). "Using indicators to assess the environmental impacts of wine growing activity: The INDIGO® method" (PDF). European Journal of Agronomy. 62: 13–25 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  18. ↑ Chaminade, C., Randelli, F. (2020). The Role of Territorially Embedded Innovation Ecosystems Accelerating Sustainability Transformations: A Case Study of the Transformation to Organic Wine Production in Tuscany (Italy). Sustainability. 12(11), 4621. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114621
  19. ↑ Oller, Pablo (2021). "Structure and management of traditional agroforestry vineyards in the high valleys of southern Bolivia". Agroforest Syst. 96: 375–386 – via Springer Link.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Chaminade, C., Randelli, F. (2020). The Role of Territorially Embedded Innovation Ecosystems Accelerating Sustainability Transformations: A Case Study of the Transformation to Organic Wine Production in Tuscany (Italy). Sustainability. 12(11), 4621. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114621
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Biddoccu, M., Capello, G., Cavallo, E. (2020). Permanent cover for soil and water conservation in mechanized vineyards: A study case in Piedmont, NW Italy. Italian Journal of Agronomy, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2020.1763
  22. ↑ United Nations. (n.d.). The 17 goals | sustainable development. United Nations. https://sdgs.un.org/goals
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Villanueva-Rey, P., Vázquez-Rowe, I., Moreira, M. T., & Feijoo, G. (2014). Comparative life cycle assessment in the wine sector: Biodynamic vs. conventional viticulture activities in NW spain. Journal of Cleaner Production, 65, 330-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.026
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Palmieri, N., & Perito, M. A. (2020). CONSUMERS' WILLINGNESS TO CONSUME SUSTAINABLE AND LOCAL WINE IN ITALY: IJFS. Italian Journal of Food Science, 32(1) doi:https://doi.org/10.14674/IJFS-1648
  25. ↑ Moscovici, D., Gow, J., Alonso Ugaglia, A., Rezwanul, R., Valenzuela, L., & Mihailescu, R. (2022). Consumer preferences for organic wine - global analysis of people and place. Journal of Cleaner Production, 368, 133215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133215
  26. ↑ Mura, R., Vicentini, F., Botti, L. M., & Chiriacò, M. V. (2023). Economic and environmental outcomes of a sustainable and circular approach: Case study of an italian wine-producing firm. Journal of Business Research, 154, 113300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113300
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 UNEP. (2008, May). Payments for ecosystem services: Getting started. UN Environment Programme.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 European Commission. (n.d.). EU wine legislation. The EU wine legislation. https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/farming/crop-productions-and-plant-based-products/wine/eu-wine-legislation_en


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