Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Farmers of the Forest: Status and threats to hornbills in Asia

From UBC Wiki
Hornbill sitting on branch with beak in the air
Hornbill against the backdrop of the forest, a symbol of wildlife resilience amidst habitat challenges.

Farmers of the Forest: Status and threats to hornbills in Asia

Introduction

Hornbills are large tropical birds, typically found all across Asia, who play a vital role in the health of the tropical forests they inhabit[1]. They are considered farmers of the forest and act as seed dispersers that help to maintain the structure of the forest and aid in its regeneration[2]. They are often referred to as keystone species and their presence in tropical habitats often implies the ecosystem is healthy[1]. It’s the unique ability to swallow and regurgitate unharmed seeds while traversing long distances that differentiates hornbills from other exotic bird species and makes them a good indicator of the health of the forest[3]. When hornbills populations are thriving, it is directly reflected in the health and abundance of up to 75% of native tree species and 60% of native shrubs in the area[4]. There are 32 different species found in Asia, and due to their role in the ecosystem, most require large tracts of forest with fruiting trees for feeding and nesting[5].

Hornbill populations are under serious threat due to climate change and other anthropogenic disturbances[1]. The vast habitat and niche associated with these precious birds is being rapidly lost and disturbed with Thailand alone having lost nearly 70% of its original forest cover[5]. Deforestation and hunting of hornbills have led to their overall decline within their geographic ranges[1]. Hunted for their body parts, for consumption of their meat, and for their body fat, which is believed to have medicinal properties, these animals are being pushed into endangerment. 34% of species are listed by the IUCN as ‘Near Threatened,’ 19% as ‘Vulnerable,’ 9% as ‘Endangered,’ and 6% as ‘Critically Endangered,’ while only 31% are classified as ‘Least Concern’[4]. Even their remaining viable habitat has been subject to logging, degradation, and fragmentation which has put significant stress on all hornbill species[4]. The IUCN has also stated that up to 85% of the 32 Asian hornbills species are currently decreasing and that conservation action must be taken by humans in order to prevent the extinction of these creatures[4].

History

Hornbills species in Asia have a diverse and complex evolutionary origin[6]. These birds have several unique traits that put them in a relatively distinct clade including their fused upper vertebrae, long flattened upper eyelashes, and bilobular kidneys[7]. There are several hornbill lineages, those that include all 32 of today’s Asian hornbills species, that are known to have arrived in Asia by the early to mid-Eocene. But their fundamental niche was apparent far before this time. The processes by which seeds reach their sites for germination has been essential fundamental niche to angiosperm plants since their origins in the early Cretaceous period[6]. Since then, hornbill lineages have differentiated overtime into 32 unique taxa that have been further classified into 15 genera[6]. These groups have been outlined primarily based off studies analyzing various Hornbill mtDNA sequences and differences in the birds genomes[7].

Habitat Assessment

When assessing the dire state of hornbill populations and their vulnerability to disturbances, we must assess both the abiotic and the biological factors that are influencing critical habitat[5]. Some abiotic factors to consider include storm frequency, altitude, slope, annual rainfall and temperature[5]. It's due to the expedited rate of climate change that many of these abiotic habitat factors are becoming less stable and constantly increasing overall habitat vulnerability[1]. It was also found that the relative success of hornbill habitat was closely related to forest patch size, distance to road, and distance to large forest patch[5]. Areas that are more isolated from these anthropogenic disturbances showed to be more effective at sustaining healthy populations[1]. Since these animals also rely greatly on the forest for survival, tree species, forest strand, and vegetation type are all relevant biological factors. The fundamental niche of hornbills depends on the seed dispersal of native large-seeded tree and shrub species[4]. The vegetation type, forest stand and overall health of tropical plants is therefore very important to effective critical habitat. Their diet is also very reliant on a sufficient supply of fruit and without an adequate amount of fruiting trees these large bodied birds simply cannot be sustained[4].

Hunting

The five largest species out of the nine hornbills known to Bia Biosphere Reserve, have vanished completely due to uncontrolled hunting since 1990[8] . On top of this several large hornbills have been abolished from forest reserves where hunting is widespread. Findings suggest that the significant declines and local extinctions of large hornbill populations are mainly caused by unregulated hunting. In contrast, the decrease in smaller insectivorous species may be linked to extensive fragmentation and disturbances in the forest habitat of Ghana[8] . Hornbills tend to fly low and at a slower pace over the canopy of fruit trees, this makes them easy targets for gun hunters, which is exacerbated by slow reproduction rates. This puts the hornbills in a very vulnerable position[8] . Unregulated deterioration of natural habitats and the hunting of wild animals for meat, driven by the growth and movement of rural populations in African forest regions, have significantly reduced the numbers of various large animal species[8]. This, in turn, has intensified the hunting of large birds such as hornbills. The decline and loss of these species is destructive for the affected animals and signifies significant harm to both African cultural heritage and natural resources. Logging, especially in less populated areas that may lack proper infrastructure, frequently enables bushmeat hunting, making it challenging for law enforcement to effectively monitor and address these activities[8] . Addressing bushmeat hunting can be a challenge involving socio-political factors, which in turn brings complexity to addressing hornbill hunting since they have been shown to be inextricably linked. Uncontrolled hunting has wiped out already stressed remaining populations of large hornbills, and can therefore be concluded that hunting is a tipping factor among other threats such as habitat disturbance and illegal logging[8].

Current Remedial Action

Hornbill on branch looking upwards with blurry trees in background
The tragic aftermath of hornbill hunting, as remnants of feathers emphasize the challenges these birds face.

Hornbills are birds that are dependent on the abundance of trees and forests to survive. However, the current existing level of protection is not sufficient to maintain the hornbill population. “Throughout Asia, only 7% of forests inhabited by hornbills are under Protected Status, and the average size of these Protected Areas is ~ 350 km2” (Naniwadekar & Datta, 2013) This data highlights the urgent need for an expansion of the protected areas in protection of the hornbills. The Asian countries are making promises to stop deforestation by half by 2020 and end by 2030 (Peh). These promises, if they are fulfilled, the Hornbills would have a much better living environment. To be more specific about the conservation projects that are taking place that are aimed at protecting hornbill populations. One notable program is the Hornbill Nest Adoption Program in India[9]. It encourages the local communities to protect the hornbill nests from poaching and ensure the safety of the Chicks. Additionally, The Hornbill Research Foundation in Thailand conducts studies on Hornbill behaviour, ecology, and breeding patterns.[10] Deepening our knowledge about hornbills and in turn, protecting them more effectively. Knowing their role in nature and habitats can also help people come up with ways to protect them.

Not only do they face harsh living conditions, but they also confront issues such as illegal bird trade. Hornbills comprise numerous varieties, and one of the species is known as the helmeted hornbill. According to Beastall et al., their casque is solid, unlike that of other hornbill species. The casque is an enlargement of the beak, and when it is solid, it stands out to carvers and poachers. Its hardness makes the beak perfect for carvings, and in China and other Asian countries, these carvings are considered a sign of luck. This tradition can be traced back to the Ming Dynasty in 1371 (Beastall et al., 2016). Not only are they hunted. There are also people caging the birds and reselling them as pets for their clients. Southeast Asia has the world’s largest market for illegal wildlife products including both plants and animals (UNDOC 2013) Many organizations such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) are launching campaigns Under Wildlife Asia, halving the consumer intent to purchase such wildlife （USAID). Efforts are still continuously being made to stop wildlife trading in the protection of all wildlife that is endangered, instead of just Hornbills.

Mitigating the impacts of Climate Change is crucial for the protection of Hornbills as well. Climate Change brings issues and challenges which include vegetation changes. Which can change the distribution and availability of suitable hornbill habitats. Mitigating the effects of climate change on horn bills involves implementing strategies that make these birds more resilient. They can involve habitat restoration projects which are stated above. They promote diverse and climate-resilient vegetation and that creates a condition for Hornbills to survive. Additionally, research is also required and important to understand how climate change would impact hornbill behaviour and behaviours[11]. With this kind of knowledge, action can be taken when these birds are in danger from climate change-caused events such as differences in food availability.

Protected Areas

Since the health of hornbill populations is directly related to an adequate habitat, and considering the apparent effects of anthropogenic disturbances, protected areas provide a promising conservation strategy[5]. When establishing these zones we must take into account what's practical for the landscape and the land use within the region as well as priority zones for hornbill populations. Priority conservation areas for hornbills are typically determined using three main criteria: species richness, total number of Endangered or Critically Endangered species, and area of potentially suitable habitat[5].

Furthermore, the establishment of protected areas as a conservation strategy aligns with the understanding that the health of hornbill populations is tied to the quality and availability of their habitats[12]. Protected areas provide a safe space for hornbills, without human activities or limited human activities which offers the Hornbills a space to thrive without disturbances. However, it is crucial to take into consideration the practicality of the landscape in terms of hornbill habitat. Hornbill habitats require a large forest to thrive. Taking into account the ecological dynamics, geographic features and other influences such as human activities that may interfere with the effectiveness of the protected area all must be taken into consideration. Having a balance between conservation goals and the needs of local communities is essential as well for long-term success.

Future Projections

The depletion of forests correlates to a reduction in hornbill populations, because this species is dependent on trees for nesting sites during reproduction and as a source of food. Consequently, it is essential to conduct research and surveys on endangered species to determine the potential of the remaining habitats for these target species[13]. To decrease the threats to hornbills and ensure their conservation, a proactive approach is essential. Future projections for hornbill conservation aim to address the challenges they face.

Moving forward, it is crucial to set up starting points by estimating populations and finding and keeping an eye on the locations where hornbills build nests and rest. The importance of safeguarding and preserving areas much bigger than the places hornbills usually prefer or where they nest is necessary. During the non breeding season, larger hornbills, specifically the Great Hornbill, are known to be nomadic[14]. They seem to track fruiting trees in different habitats than they normally would, and can therefore be witnessed in dry deciduous tracts[14]. By expanding the known areas of these species and taking these facts into consideration more accurate data will be provided. A significant portion of forests exists beyond current protected areas, including private forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Specifically, in the Western Ghats' tropical wet evergreen forests, only one-fourth of the total area is reported to be relatively un-fragmented, with 74% located outside protected areas[14]. More accurate conservation strategies can be implemented from gathering information of the distribution and patterns over these landscapes. There is a need for more linkage between conservation, and the areas surrounding this species habitat.

Developing community participation involves ongoing strategies to stop poaching. Speaking to poachers and providing knowledge of what will happen if these species were to go extinct is a method being used [15]. The knowledge voiced to poachers includes how the conditions of watershed forests will be at risk, a rich array of plant species will decline and the ecosystem will be at risk as well[15]. In order to mitigate the impact of losing their income, poachers are provided with daily wages to work as research assistants for ongoing projects that revolve around the status of hornbills [15]. The ‘hornbill family adoption’ was initiated, this process includes choosing a hornbill species and the number of nests an individual wished to adopt. An annual fee is collected and the money gets spent on hiring guards and data collectors of hornbill nests [15].

Utilizing line transects has appeared to be useful in previous studies regarding ecology. They are an easily applicable method for monitoring hornbill populations[14]. There's a requirement to create a plan for overseeing, and conserving crucial hornbill populations. A committee, comprising the local forest department, NGOs, local residents, and a field/conservation biologist in a facilitating role, should be involved in developing an accurate management and action plan [14]. Conservation education and awareness should be closely integrated with protection and conservation initiatives[14].

The Path Forward

Many current conservation programmes and efforts have been studied and proven to be effective in the protection and conservation of threatened and protected species, specifically in regards to the hornbill population[4].  Though progress has been made, continuation of implementation and regulation of policy in support of the conservation of this species is required to ensure these efforts remain sustainable and effective in the long-term and that projections of future populations are positive [5][4][5].  Some suggestions of policy adaptations may include:

  1. Stricter regulations surrounding online platforms for trade and trafficking of animals and animal products at all levels.  This includes (a) government action to to curb online trade, such as  legislation against the digital advertisement of protected species, which some governments have already implemented but is not a widespread practice; and (b) regulations of online platforms for trade, whether that be through the government or through individual action, to prohibit protected and endangered species from being involved in wildlife trade[5].
  2. A focus on poverty alleviation where areas of high poverty neighbour forested areas as to (a) reduce the demand for forest products and resources as a means of protecting hornbill habitats.  Neighbouring communities with high poverty rates often rely on forested areas as their sole means of acquiring resources, which leads to degradation and depletion of resources within these areas.  Poverty alleviation could allow communities to operate on a more sustainable basis where both the needs of the community and forests are being met[6]; and (b) create stable employment opportunities to reduce the need for poaching as a source of income[6], which could include biodiversity payments to local land managers[16], provision of employment opportunities within fields of conservation to shift income sources away from illegal trade[4].
  3. An increase in academic research on both the topic of (a) hornbill biology and their conservation, including ornithological studies to better understand which populations are most endangered, what the best course of action for conservation is, and in which countries legislation and policy efforts should be focused[5].  This would require a policy change to allow ornithologists to obtain permits that are currently difficult to obtain, specifically in Southeast Asia, posing as a barrier to the research of hornbills and other endangered bird species[6]; and (b) forested ecosystems in Asia to guide future conservation efforts, including protected areas, unprotected large forest areas, and forest patches or degraded forest areas surrounding both protected and unprotected large forest areas.  Hornbill habitats have been found in both protected and unprotected areas, and a more comprehensive research of these habitats is vital to understanding hornbill population patterns.  Research should include models of land cover changes, fragmentation, and disturbance[6][5].
  4. Education of local communities on specific issues in conservation, such as the hornbill, as to raise awareness surrounding the importance of endangered species as well as future policies and governance of protected areas[6].  This could include community outreach programs occurring through school-provided activities and workshops, summer camps, or educational field trips, which are helpful in the implementation of knowledge of both children and adults, fostering an understanding of hornbill morphology, biology, and ecology as to create a greater awareness of their importance in ecosystems and why conservation is so vital[15].  Additionally, community involvement in restoration and conservation projects of hornbill habitats could be useful in the understanding of ecosystems and protected species, which can help foster a greater understanding of policy and governance that may be implemented in said areas, mitigating potential backlash against and ultimately gaining more support for conservation efforts from community members[15][6].

Conclusion

The endangerment of hornbill populations not only threatens the livelihood and future of the hornbill itself, but can also be regarded as an indicator of greater trends in Asia for conservation on a much larger scale. Forests in some parts of Asia are highly subject to fragmentation, increasing susceptibility to disturbances, and much of the un-fragmented forest lies in unprotected areas where they are at risk of being deforested or disturbed by human activities[14].  As of 2006, Asia’s conservational efforts of terrestrial ecosystems, which include their forests, are falling exceedingly short, with funding reaching less than 5% of the required target.  Though some positive progress has been made in hornbill conservation efforts specifically, the greater issue of social, economic, and political factors and processes must be widely addressed in order to maintain efforts and healthy ecosystems in the long run[6]. 

References

Please use the Wikipedia reference style. Provide a citation for every sentence, statement, thought, or bit of data not your own, giving the author, year, AND page. For dictionary references for English-language terms, I strongly recommend you use the Oxford English Dictionary. You can reference foreign-language sources but please also provide translations into English in the reference list.

Note: Before writing your wiki article on the UBC Wiki, it may be helpful to review the tips in Wikipedia: Writing better articles.

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Sarkar, D., & Talukdar, G. (2023). Predicting the impact of future climate changes and range-shifts of Indian hornbills (family: Bucerotidae). Ecological Informatics, 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2023.101987
  2. ↑ Chantarat, S., Barrett, C.B., Janvilisri, T., Mudsri, S., Niratisayakul, C., Poonswad, P. (2011) Index insurance for pro-poor conservation of hornbills in Thailand. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108(34):13951-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3161535/
  3. ↑ Puri, N., Verma, A., Chhetri, R., Chand, H. B., & Rijal, S. (2022). Species distribution modelling of two sympatric hornbills: The great hornbill and rufous-necked hornbill in Bhutan. International Journal of Ecology, 2022, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1475501
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Naniwadekar, R., & Datta, A. (2013). Spatial and Temporal Variation in Hornbill Densities in Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh, North-East India. Tropical Conservation on Science, 6(6), 734–748. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291300600603 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":5" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 Trisurat, Y., Chimchome, V., Pattanavibool, A., Jinamoy, S., Thongaree, S., Kanchanasakha, B., Simcharoen, S., Sribuarod, K., Mahannop, N., & Poonswad, P. (2013). An assessment of the distribution and conservation status of hornbill species in Thailand. Oryx, 47(3), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605311001128 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":6" defined multiple times with different content
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Viseshakul, N., Charoennitikul, W., KitamuraI, S., Kemp, A., Thong-Aree, S., Surapunpitak, Y., Poonswad, P., Ponglikitmongkol, M. (2011), A phylogeny of frugivorous hornbills linked to the evolution of Indian plants within Asian rainforests. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 24: 1533-1545. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02285.x Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":7" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Gonzalez, J.-C. T., Sheldon, B. C., Collar, N. J., & Tobias, J. A. (2013). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny for the hornbills (Aves: Bucerotidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 67(2), 468–483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2013.02.012
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Holbech, L.H; Annorbah, N.N.D; Phalan, B; Arcilla, N (2018). "Uncontrolled hunting and habitat degradation decimate and extirpate forest hornbills in Ghana, West Africa". Biological Conservation, 223, 104–111.
  9. ↑ Datta, Aparajita (2022). "HORNBILL NEST ADOPTION PROGRAM".
  10. ↑ "Hornbill Foundation".
  11. ↑ World Land Trust (n.d). "Great Hornbill". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ↑ Chibesa, M; Barrett, C; Janvilisri, T; Mudsri, S; Niratissayakul, C; Poonswad, P (2011). "Index insurance for pro-poor conservation of hornbills in Thailand". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108(34): 13951–6.
  13. ↑ Sodhi, N.S (2014). Conservation of Hornbills in Thailand. Conservation biology: Voices from the Tropics. essay, John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 157-165 pages.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Mudappa, D; Raman, S (2009). A conservation status survey of hornbills (Bucerotidae) in the Western Ghats, India. Nature Conservation Foundation. pp. 90-99 pages.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Poonswad, P; Thiensongrusamee, P; Mudsri, S (2012, June 21). "Basic conservation approaches and the fate of hornbills in Thailand: a prototype for future bird–people relationships". Spinger Link. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ↑ du Toit, J. T., Walker, B. H., & Campbell, B. M. (2004). Conserving tropical nature: Current challenges for ecologists. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2003.09.018
Seekiefer (Pinus halepensis) 9months-fromtop.jpg
 This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200. It is shared under a CC-BY 4.0 International License.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:CONS200/2023WT1/Farmers_of_the_Forest:_Status_and_threats_to_hornbills_in_Asia&oldid=814824"