Course:ASIA319/2024/"Overtitle/Subtitle/Danmaku" (弹幕)

Introduction

Danmaku or Danmu (弹幕, translated as "barrage" and "barrage commenting"/"bullet screens") was originally a military term describing a dense curtain of bullets. In contemporary online video platforms, it has evolved into a subtitle system that enables a distinctive form of viewer interaction, referring to the textual or emoticon comments made by audiences using the danmaku or danmu function while watching a video, known as "bullet curtain" or "danmaku/danmu comment."

Figure 1. The user interface of Bilibili for displaying danmu comments. Including the danmu display area, danmu switch, danmu input area, and danmu list.

It is significantly different from traditional video online reviews in terms of where and how it is presented. Traditional video comments exist independently of the video content, usually located in the comment area below the video, static display of user ID, comment time, IP location, comment text and other content, according to the order of the time of publication of the comments or the number of likes and other rules for sorting. Users need to view all the comments under a particular video by sliding the comment section, which is the default display format of the website, and users usually can not customize the style of comment showing.

Danmaku/Danmu comments, on the other hand, as a new type of comment, can be displayed in a scrolling manner from right to left, directly overlaying the video, and can be synchronized to the specific playing time of the video. By using this feature, users can watch videos while viewing the danmaku/danmu comments posted by other users, and they can also post timely information about their emotions, attitudes, and thoughts arising from watching videos and danmaku/danmu comments by sending out such comments. When delivering a danmaku/danmu comment, the user can set the color, font, scrolling speed, and the page position on which the comment text is placed. In addition, posting a danmaku/danmu comment is completely anonymous, and only the content of the comment is visible above the video, not the user's username. Such a danmaku/danmu function allows users to communicate with each other in a more direct way, creating a real-time shared experience, namely, although the danmaku/danmu comments a user actually sees while watching a particular video are sent by other users at another time when watching the same video scene, one can interact with those who have already watched the video and thus have the experience and feeling of shared viewing.

At this time, the danmaku/danmu have the dual characteristics of real-time and cumulative: users watching the same video can not only see the current moment other people sent danmaku/danmu, but all the danmaku/danmu will also be stored in the video's "danmaku/danmu pool" for subsequent viewers to view. This emergence breaks the pattern of one-way communication of traditional video websites, and viewers can communicate both synchronously and asynchronously while watching danmaku/danmu videos. Despite the danmaku/danmu being essentially non-synchronized, the way it scrolls and floats across the screen creates an illusionary atmosphere of multiple people watching online at once. Japanese scholar Hamano Satoshi calls this temporality unique to danmaku/danmu "pseudo-synchronization." From this perspective, danmaku/danmu can be considered as an innovative application of the instant messaging function on video sites.

In light of this, this wiki page explores what Chinese cultural traits are reflected by retracing the genesis and evolution of danmaku/danmu and, first, examining the differences in their application across different types of video content and platforms. Second, cross-temporal and cross-cultural comparisons are made to explain how the linguistic and symbolic expressions in danmaku/danmu culture highlight the characteristics of contemporary Chinese online culture, how these characteristics are similar to and distinct from traditional cultural expressions as well as how the mode of development of danmaku/danmu culture in China differs from that in other countries (e.g., Japan), and what cultural and social factors it presents. At last, an attempt is made to expose the social, cultural and political problems facing danmaku/danmu culture (such as copyright protection, information interference, public opinion guidance, etc.) in order to raise the question of the development challenges of contemporary Chinese popular culture.

The Genesis and Dictionary Meaning of Danmu

Figure 2. An illustration of danmu's evolution

The term "danmu" was adopted by China as a wasei-kango (和制汉语, Japanese-made Chinese words) derived the Japanese word "danmaku (だんまく)." The arcade game Batsugun, a vertically scrolling shooter that pioneered many modern models for danmuku-style games, popularized the term danmaku and later, people introduced this term to the ACG community. This subgenre of games featured intense and continual waves of projectiles that players must evade, and the relentless barrage of shots in danmaku games lend themselves nicely to a vivid description of the nonstop onslaught of comments saturating the entire visual field.

Danmaku became the proper noun for this particular type of on-screen commentary in 2006 on a Japanese video-sharing website Niconico. This platform allows viewers to post comments that appear directly on a playing video and move across the screen in sync with the video's timeline. With Niconico's growing popularity in Mainland China, Chinese ACG websites such as AcFun and Bilibili also began to inplement danmaku features from 2008 to 2009. Danmaku remained a subculture in Japan, yet danmu rapidly became widely embraced by ACG fans in China, and by the end of 2015, major Chinese subscription video-on-demand over-the-top streaming applications, such as iQiyi, Youku, and Tencent Videohad all integrated this feature.

Controversy over Its Pronounciation

The Chinese character "弹" is composed of "弓" (gōng) and "单" (dān), both of which are pictographs. The character "弓" refers to a bow or any device for shooting arrows and projectiles — as seen in words like "张弓" (drawing a bow), "弹弓" (slingshot), and "弓箭" (bow and arrow). The character "单" initially represented a hunting tool somewhat similar to a slingshot, later evolved into a weapon. The oracle bone scipt version of "单" depicts a forked stick with stones and rope tied to its ends. "单" also took on the meaning of "one" or "single," likely because the tool could only bring down one animal at a time.

"弹" is a heteronymic character with different meanings attached to each pronunciation. When pronounced as "dàn", it refers to a "bullet" or bullet-shaped objects. When pronounced as "tán", it functions mainly as a verb in contexts such as "弹棉花" (fluffing cotton), "弹奏" (playing a musical instrument by plucking with fingers), "弹射" (ejecting or shooting by spring action), or "弹劾" (exposing / accusing).

Figure 3. Due to limitations of device performance, the Bilibili platform mostly cannot display all danmu on the screen in fully when the number of danmu is extremely high. The uploader of this video used ShanaEncoder to embed the original video’s files of over one million danmu posted into the video, rendering it to mimic the effect as if all danmu is shown.

The origin of the word "弹幕," as the introduction touched upon, was initially a military term, "barrage." This tactic was widely used during World War I and World War II. The second character "幕," which means covering fabric, is used metaphorically here to describe that the bullets densely block the line of sight resembling a thick curtain. It refers to the action of continuously firing large guns to protect soldiers advancing on an enemy. As mentioned in Chapter 25 of "The Panorama of World War II, Vol. 3": "At this point, bombing and strafing also began in the air while a creeping barrage was executed on the sea... All of the Japanese weapons——carefully concealed artillery, mortars, and other guns——originated the firing simultaneously, creating a fierce and dense barrage... " This chapter remarks how the U.S. created a continuous barrage against Japanese positions but the Japanese forces also unleashed a counterattack that trapped the Americans in a deadly crossfire using the same tactic of concentrating heavy and destructive artillery bombardment. The character "弹" in "弹幕" as barrage takes the meaning of "bullet," thus leading the majority of people to believe that it should be read as "dàn" to preserve its contextual and etymological meaning. Nowadays, when this term is largely used to refer to curtain of bullet-like texts that block spectators’ view of the screen also deeply resembles massed sustained shelling and bullets flying from right to left across the video. Furthermore, danmu parallels the mechanics of shooter games where users must react quickly and smash their keys frantically to let off a volley of bullets in the shortest possible time in response to enemy projectiles. The commentary, especially when densely packed, also have an almost combative intensity that mirrors the active participation as well as the frenetic pace of shooter gaming.

The pronunciation though, still has different interpretations to this day. Some believes that "弹" should be pronounced as "tán" because the way "弹幕" appear on the screen is very similar to pop-up windows. Moreover, the term "弹幕" has drifted away from its original military meaning long ago. The pronunciation of "tán" of this character seems to be more fitting becasue it is more common both in terms of meaning and frequency, plus people barely associate flying comments with bullets anymore.

Figure 4. Screenshot of Niconico video viewing page; the blue bubble says: "ログインするとコメントできます," which means "you can comment after logging in."

In Japan, only the platform Niconico uses the term "danmaku" to refer to this specific type of comments showing on the video screen. The phrase "danmaku" first appeared on Niconico in a video titled "レミオロメン," which has been deleted and unfortunately unaccesible and unverifible. And if you visit Niconico's website now, the platform itself does not officially call this feature "danmaku," but rather "コメント" (comment). Unlike YouTube and Bilibili, Niconico does not have a designated comment section under its videos. Instead, the site's comments appear in the form of "danmaku," which has led some to argue that referring all flying comments on videos as "danmaku" is a total misnomer.

Additionally, the issue of verbal disputes in danmu comments has drawn attention. Some have pointed out that users often engage in harsh languages where disagreements escalate into verbal violence. The pronunciation of dànmù unintentionally amplifies its aggressive and confrontational connotation. If pronounced as tánmù, however, it could somewhat reduce the violent implication, as "弹" (tán) sounds the same to "谈" (tán), meaning "to talk," and could be associated with the idea of commenting as a form of discussion rather than attack.

Contemporary Meaning and Usage

Mode and Format for Expression

• "Standard danmu, also the most common type of danmu, move horizontally from right to left across the screen.
• Top-fixed danmu appear at the top of the screen and remain visible for a few seconds before disappearing.
• Bottom-fixed danmu, which also remain for a few seconds. Due to their stable position at the bottom of the screen, these are often used for viewers to post subtitles and lyrics.
• Advanced danmu allow for a variety of settings that can give them a unique style, position, and movement that sets them apart from regular ones.
• In certain scenarios, specific colors of danmu represent specific themes. For example. green danmu often symbolizes betrayal and NTR (netorare) scenarios, drawing on the cultural association in Chinese culture of "wearing a green hat" to represent infidelity; yellow danmu indicates adult content; pink and red are frequently used to signify romance; purple ones represent male friendship or boys' love contents, as purple is associated with male homosexuality and queer rights.

In Terms of Danmu's Content

Danmu can be roughly divided into two categories according to the content: one is danmu with practical meaning, namely, danmu with a particular ideological purpose, for the specific content of the screen for knowledgeable explanation, annotation, hint, wish, confession, teasing and so on. The other category is non-substantive danmu, meaning danmu itself does not have specific and tangible content, and most of these appear in the form of character drawings and other forms for the purpose of supporting, creating an atmosphere, blocking or altering the content of the screen, and so forth.

Danmu With Actual Meaning

Texts of substantive danmu are distinguished by its immediacy, companionship, entertainment factor, and opinionated nature. Compared to traditional comments, danmu more accurately reflects users' emotional states in the moment. The rapid development of danmu has transformed the structure of media consumption. While traditional viewing implies a passive and distant reception, danmu encourages the audience to actively engage and participate in the content. As a result, media consumers become media producers.

Danmu can be categorized into several types, including informative, reminder-based, parody, translation, subtitles/lyrics, question-oriented, emotional expressions, and among others.

Knowledgeable-explanation Danmu

A common form of danmu is the "knowledgeable-explanation danmu," (科普弹幕) which is designed to provide viewers with additional background knowledge. When some professional knowledge or fun facts appear in the video, a large number of detailed explanations and supplements will emerge in the danmu screen, which mainly address the more specialized and complex concepts such as its terminology, important people or historical events in an easy-to-understand way, in order to help other viewers better understand the content, which plays an essential role in the dissemination of knowledge. Therefore, it is evident that knowledgeable-explanation danmu, which constructs a favorable shared context for users, arouses the resonance of knowledge among them and promotes the secondary production of knowledge dissemination.

Figure 5. The yellow text on the image represents the Golden Crow (金乌), at the top of the image are the viewers' cyber wish.

Cyber Wish

Figure 6. The picture shows a tample in China which is believed to bring students academic success, viewers post their wishes at the top of the screen.

Cyber wish (赛博许愿, a combination of cyborg and wish-making), which refers to comments expressing wishes, commonly found on Chinese short video platforms like Bilibili, Tiktok and the Red (xiaohongshu).

Figure 7. The picture shows koi fish, and the viewers post their wishes at the top of the screen.

The content of cyber wish covers a wide range of topics, such as wishing for academic success, fullfilling love, smooth life, as well as prosperity and good health. Moreover, the content of these cyber wish may be influenced by the video context. For example, in videos about academics success, the scenes often show well-known temples or statues in China that are believed to bless students with good grades, where viewers posts wishes for good grades or admission (Figure 4 ). Specifically, videos showing special Chinese cultural elements can also inspire wishes: for instance, the Golden Crow (金乌), a devine bird in Chinese mythology, aspires viewers to make wishes in its presence (Figure 5 ); and the Koi Fish (锦鲤), symbolizing luck in Chinese culture, frequently draws confession danmu in videos featuring it. (Figure 6)

Confession Danmu

Figure 8. There are many confession danmu accumulated at the top of the video from viewers.

Confession damnu refers to those comments in which viewers express affection through danmu. These comments frequently appear around specific dates, such as Valentine's Day (February, 14th), "520" (May 20th, the date pronounced like "I love you" in Chinese) and the Qixi Festival (July 7th in the lunar calendar). In the videos posted around these days, many confession danmu often appear. Since many platforms allow danmu to accumulate over time, confession danmu is not limited to these special dates. They also appear when romantic scenes show up like love story moments or a couple in the video reach a happy ending (HE) or a bad ending (BE). For instance, in Figure 7, there are many confession danmu accumulated at the top of the video from viewers.

Confession danmu is very popular among young people. In the fifth season of the Chinese variety show Youth Periplous 2, the production team surveyed 1,000 students aged 20, asking them "What is your favourite way to declare love?" The top answer was through confession danmu.

Promotion Danmu in fandom culture

Figure 9. A fancy type of promotion danmu on Seventeen's 'Super' MV on Bilibili

With the rapid growth of the internet and capital investment in entertainment and idol market, the fan economy has developed a powerful flow of monetizable engagement. Fans' responsibilities have shifted from participatory cultural producers to free "data laborers" who vigorously advertise their idols' internet visibility. These data-driven activities include flooding comment sections and danmu with supporting comments for their idols (应援弹幕). In most cases, fans post danmu in a specific color associated with their idol, resembling a wave of light sticks (only in these idol's representative colors 应援色). Some view these digital support online as the most essential indicators of their idol's popularity and success. By establishing an impressive data presence, fans wish to express their loyalty, investment, and dedication while concurrently highlighting the idol's commercial value and influence in the community to casual views and potential sponsors.

Figure 10. Round Six of Comment Art Festival Artwork from Bilibili.

It can be seen that the way of interpreting and processing video by danmu commentaries is relatively simple, basically presenting only visual symbols, but the aesthetic form that can be shown by utilizing the character substance of danmu is relatively affluent and even forms the so-called "comment art." For example, the "Comment Art Festival" (蓝白弹幕祭) held regularly by Bilibili encourages users to participate in the creation and deconstruction of danmu texts with the help of the functional characteristics of the danmu system and some of the unique programming interfaces it provides.

In Terms of Medium of Displaying Danmu

The so-called "danmu medium" refers to different types of "danmu video sites." Literally, as long as both the danmu function and the video site are present, they should fall into this category, but of course, this is only a broad division, and the subject of this wiki page is still mainly danmu video sites in the narrower sense. For the sake of convenience, these video sites containing danmu are broadly categorized into three types, and their characteristics are discussed and then distinguished:

Danmu in Short-Form Videos

The first category is short video platforms that provide danmu functions, represented by Tiktok and Kuaishou. Their common features are: firstly, in pursuit of "full content," complete popularity and entertainment, the content is abundant, miscellaneous, and has a high overlap rate. Secondly, the danmu function of such platforms is an auxiliary function added temporarily for commercial considerations and can be removed at any time, if necessary, without affecting the existence of the platform itself.

From the heat danmu, viewers are relatively concentrated on the topics discussed and emotions shared while watching patriotic short videos. By rhythmically sending the same pop-ups, such as "Long live the motherland," "Love my China," and "Go for it" to "keep in formation," patriotic feelings are awakened, assimilated, strengthened and sublimated, and hence group solidarity, patriotic symbols and group morality are formed, transforming transient collective excitement into long-term patriotic feelings.

Danmu in Long-Form Videos

On popular Chinese streaming platforms for TV series and movies, such as Youku, Tencent Video, and Mango TV, as well as on overseas platforms primarily for Chinese audiences, like iYF viewers are allowed to send danmu while watching the video. These danmu typically interact with or respond to the content of the show, often expressing empathy, providing additional explanations or even pointing out continuity errors. Danmu also includes replies to other comments on the screen; for instance, a viewer may ask a question about the content, and other comments may provide answers. Although these comments may be posted at different times, and the viewers involved may not see each other's responses, this interaction may increase a sense of communal engagement for other viewers.

Not all viewers, however, enjoy danmu in TV series or movies. Some of them find that an abundance of danmu may block the screen and make it difficult to see the video. Additionally, many danmu may have little relevance to the current video, such as support for the actors or actresses in the video or repetitive content about the storyline. These factors can lead some viewers to dislike danmu. Hence, platforms often offer the option to disable this feature.

Moreover, some viewers enjoy danmu, especially those in well-beloved and re-watched classic TV series or movies. For example, some new viewers may post fresh comments, or long-time fans may develop new thoughts of the same scene over time. This can make reading danmu as an interesting experience.

Danmu in Live Streams

Figure 11. "Virtual lottery" on Bilibili stream rooms explained

The explosive popularity of livestreaming represents a kind of contemporary visual revolution. Online livestreams have added a new dimension of commodification and entertainment value to physical appearance of people. When individuals lack skills or talents to produce professional adnc reative content, their faces become a new form of "capital" where physical beauty has become the decisive factor of success for new streamers, or an added bonus for experienced ones. Whether it's real people or virtual, streamers must carefully take care of their body image. For example, many female streamers use stunning selfies as their live cover, and virtual youtubers repeatedly modify their avatars according to continuously changing audience tastes and market aesthetic trends. Streamers show their face and body to give viewers emotional support, a virtual chance to satisfy their personal aesthetic ambitions for themselves, a way to vent loneliness or frustration for marginalized individuals, and, in certain situations, a way to fulfill voyeuristic curiosity and sexual desire. And danmu on live streaming platforms fully demonstrates visualized response of these fascination and pursuits with beauty in the society.

Figure 12. Danmu commonly seen in male vtubers's streams. from top to bottom: "妈妈" (mom), "主人" (master), "prpr" (ぺろぺろ peropero, licking sound in Japanese)

As women account for a progressively larger and larger proportion in the consumer market, the traditional notion of females looking up to and worshipping males has transformed to an emphasis on self-gratification of women, therefore online platforms have witnessed a surge in female-gaze consumerism. For example, male streamers would pout and act cute to attract female buyers. Another example further amplifies how the capital transcends traditional male-dominated structures is a phenomenon called gender-bending in fan culture, where gender roles are inversed by fans to relate traditionally feminine titles or roles to males, such as calling a male idol "wife" to capture certain qualities like beauty, maturity, or nurturing vibes that may normally feel associated with femininity after people get married and start having children.

Users can interact with live streamers at any time through danmu and donations, reacting to the content instantly or telling personal life stories to the streamers through super chats (when audiences pay to have their messages highlighted and pinned in the live chat. The more you pay, the longer the message is displayed and the more eye-catching its color gets). In these moments, users are no longer passive recipients of information but instead can selectively experience, participate in, and even control the streaming contents (e.g., a streamer might say "spam 1 if you want to hear this song!"). When the viewers turn on danmu function, live streams go beyond the limitations of time and space, enabling cross-screen emotional engagement whether viewers actively post danmu or not in the live room.

Cultural Comparison

Inside of China: Past and present, From Subculture to Mainstream Culture, From Two-dimensional to Three-dimensional Content

The journey of danmu has evolved from subculture to mainstream and from two-dimensional to three-dimensional content. Initially, danmu was embraced by a niche subcultural group of young people passionate about MAG (Manga, Anime and Games) culture. They established a close-knit "danmu community" around platforms like AcFun and Bilibili, using specific language and codes unique to this community. However, strict "admission requirements" made it challenging for ordinary users to join these platforms as members."In the early days, 'danmu enthusiasts' largely positioned themselves against mainstream society and popular culture, often using cryptic "insider language" that excluded the general public." However, with technological advancements, commercialization, and growing user interest, danmu gradually transformed from "subculture" into "mainstream culture." The language and symbols used in bullet comments became more casual and accessible.

In China today, besides Acfun and Bilibili, many new media platforms have introduced danmu features, encouraging more users to participate in viewing and using it. As a result, platforms allowing bullet comments have expanded beyond the two-dimensional-focused AcFun and Bilibili to include TV dramas, movies, variety shows, live streaming, and short videos—taking danmu from two-dimensional to three-dimensional content.

Outside of China: Why Danmu Culture is "Strong in the East and Weak in the West?"

The primary reason that "danmu" is not so popular in the West is the difference in language structure. Chinese is a prime example of ideographic writing system where each of the characters stand for a specific meaning in its culture, while English and most European language is alphabetic, phonetic language with symbols representing sounds rather than ideas. As a result, Chinese allow richer and more complex meanings to be conveyed in a more compact and succinctly form. The grammar of Chinese, characterized by "parataxis" (favoring of short sentences typically without the use of subordinating conjunctions), stands in stark contrast to more rigid grammatical systems of Western languages. This flexibility allows for the omission of certain components in a sentence and still maintain logical connection in addition to offer possibilities for broader interpretations and association. Sometimes, lengthy stories, moral concepts, and admonishments can be condensed into a four-character word (四字词语 sizi ciyu, or 成语 chengyu) without losing its meaning. Also, compound characters that were formed by combing multiple identical parts, since most of them are rarely use (叕, 燚, 㗊, etc), people sometimes put several of those together to create new online terms. For example, "又双叒叕," a sizi ciyu made up of four totally unrelated characters but all contain only the radical 又 (means again), became a slang expression to describe events that occurred with extremely high frequency. These inventive usage leaves a strong impression in the population and highlights the unique visual impact of Chinese characters as special pictograms.

Additionally, ideographic languages rely more on visual processing, whereas phonetic languages depend more on auditory processing. This means that, relatively speaking, under similar conditions (such as comparable vision, reading speed, and lexical resources), reading becomes more efficient with Chinese whereas listening becomes more effective in English. Since "danmu" relies heavily on visual stimuli (text and occasionally supplemented by emojis), it acutely decreases the speed of gathering information in most Western contexts.

Moreover, research suggests that a culture with ideographic writing structure tend to value collectivity. China's linguistic traditions and political structure place a greater emphasis on group belonging, consensus-building, shared resonance, or collective agreement. In contrast, Western countries tend to place a greater emphasis on individual autonomy and privacy. Danmu function is precisely a tool for seeking instant online engagement with a ritualistic feeling of collective viewing and community.

Possessing such observational skills as sharp as microscope, it's no surprise that every goofs in a TV series would get caught by the eyes of danmu. This is another reason why danmu is so prevalent in China: it serves as an extra material to extend and reveal hidden insights of the video's content (though it can sometimes lead to the rapid spread of misinformation). Many people would choose to rewatch a TV show and pay more attention to these inside jokes posted in danmu than the plot itself.  The entertainment of danmu hence provide an exceptional source of joy for the audience to enrich their viewing experience. Every Chinese student acquires the ability to identify the examiner's intended response and habitually makes an effort to understand the passages in ways that even the original author would find unexpected.

Possessing such observational skills as sharp as those of the Hubble Space Telescope, it's no wonder that every goofs in a TV series get caught by the eyes of danmu. Another reason danmu is so popular in China is that it acts as a supplementary material to extend and reveal hidden insights into the video's content (albeit it may lead to the quick spread of misinformation and disinformation). Many people would enjoy rewatching a TV show and pay more attention to danmu than the plot itself. Danmu's entertainment hence provide an unparalleled source of joy for the audience as well as an opportunity to enrich their viewing experience.

Non-Chinese Counterpart

Figure 13. Stream chat box on Youtube (live)

The right side of the live streaming pages on Twitch and YouTube has a stream chat box that displays real-time comments. It provides users with a space for instant online communication like danmu/danmaku, but these do not fly across the screen.

Comparison between Chinese Danmu and Japanese Danmaku

The comment system of Japanese Niconico can be traced back to visual elements that have been prevalent in Japanese television programs since the 1980s, including captions, subtitles, emoji-like graphics, and post-edition texts, similar to the way Niconico displays user comments on video content. Around 2007, as Chinese otaku culture enthusiasts were inspired by Niconico, they began to remodel their personal sites and imitate Niconico videos from content to form, and many of the emerging otaku culture terms that had been developed on Niconico videos were also "transferred" together. In this process of cross-cultural communication, there are many cases in which some of the words used are copied from the original Japanese due to a lack of rigorous translation evidence. Moreover, some uncommon words in Japanese have also been used by Chinese audiences as a matter of course and have been widely disseminated and become commonly used in the Chinese otaku culture community, resulting in a new interpretation of these misused words that is unique to China, which has gradually been fixed by consensus. Among them, the komento (コメント; an English loan-word) function of Japanese danmaku video sites was directly referred to as "danmu" when it was introduced, which to a certain extent gave rise to this more memorable naming and was launched under the banner of "danmu video site" by the Chinese otaku-oriented video site. However, in essence, the meaning of "danmu" in Chinese otaku culture has not altered in the slightest compared to komento.

With the development of Chinese danmu video sites, a third interpretation of the term "danmu" has evolved in China, alongside military "barrage" and gaming "bullet hell." Although its origin is inextricably linked to its Japanese meaning, the equating of danmu with komento in the strict sense that the meaning of the word has been expanded or shifted in the process of cross-cultural communication is unique to the Chinese region.

Meanwhile, in the early days of Chinese danmu video sites, some of the regulations were borrowed directly from the community autonomy of Niconico, and were later enriched with their own localized development and specific practices. Regulations are usually divided into two categories according to the object: one for the video content, such as the handling of new releases, and the uploader to determine the carrying of work must be well maintained from beginning to end, if indeed there are exceptional circumstances need to be informed in the video profile who will take over the subsequent carrying; avoiding undesirable competitive behavior such as rush to carry a new series when it starts airing; when the uploader carries, make sure to search the site first to ensure that there is no identical video before submitting, and to guarantee the quality of the video. The other category is for danmu, often referred to by community members as "danmu etiquette," (弹幕礼仪) which is closer to moral restraints on members, such as not following the trend of filling the screen with other unrelated works and characters, not revealing the plot, not posting bottom-end danmu that obscure subtitles, and not quarrelling in danmu. The breaking of the regulations (not the common spamming of the Internet) is mostly only corrected by other community members in a more primitive and simple way, such as blocking, advising, and condemning.

Social, Cultural, and Political Problems

Problems Caused by Video Platforms

First, some social problems may be caused by video platforms carrying the danmu feature. For example, the copyright of the original video can not be fully protected and sometimes some viewers just repost videos directly without the creator's permission. More specifically, some violations may involve viewers reposting videos to another platform without the creator's permission and pretending to be the original creator. Not only short videos, directly editing and publishing movie clips as one's original content also constitutes copyright infringement. For example, in 2022, a short video creator edited and published 122 videos from the TV drama Grandma Love Me Once Again, most of which were over 10 minutes long. As a result, this creator was ordered by the court to pay 37,000 yuan in damages. Some people copy an entire profile of a creator on the same platform or different platforms, using an identical profile picture, name and homepage settings. This misleads the fans and other platform users, causing various degrees of financial and privacy-related losses to the creators.

Secondly, some political problems may be caused by video platforms with the danmu feature. For example, the official appropriation of cultural resources from certain subculture groups. Official media and party-affiliated departments representing mainstream ideology, such as the Communist Youth League and CCTV news, have registered accounts on platforms like Bilibili, known for two-dimensional culture. Their presence on these platforms has led to stricter content review policies, such as increased control over political opinions. To some extent, this restricts the freedom of expression and cultural transmission for subcultural groups.

Problems Caused by the Content of Danmu

The abundance of danmu may block the screen and make it difficult to see the video, which damages the viewing experience. Moreover, although most of the platforms have a moderation system for danmu, such as banning profanity or explicit content, some symbolic or suggestive comments with similar effects can still create a very negative experience for other users, especially children. It is worth noting that some danmu in videos can function as spreading rumours. Due to the accumulative nature of danmu, incorrect or ambiguous information remains at the top of the videos, potentially leading viewers to spread misinformation. This effect is even more serious in live streaming, where a large number of audience is watching at the same time. A single misleading comment can quickly attract significant attention, potentially causing substantial misunderstanding or issues of misinformation.

Some cultural problems may be caused by danmu content. Due to the immediacy and conciseness required in danmu, there may be a tendency toward the degradation of language and a follow-the-crowd mentality in certain expressions. Since most danmu are limited in character count, they are typically brief. This brevity, combined with the informal nature of danmu, often results in more spontaneous emotional expressions. These spontaneous expressions may sometimes include grammatical errors or ambiguous language, potentially leading to some degree of language deterioration. Consequently, short slogans have become a common phenomenon in danmu. For example, in support videos for idols, fans often use uniform slogans. These slogans are typically concise, and to showcase unity, most fans choose to use the same slogan. This may contribute to a trend of imitation and language degradation in expression.

Studies Related to Danmu

Danmu Characteristics Studies

Scholars' research mainly focuses on the study of danmu communication characteristics, danmu content characteristics, and technical characteristics of danmu systems.

Danmu Communication Characteristics Studies

Some scholars have pointed out that danmu commenting systems have transformed "video consumption into social communication," (Li, 2017: 235) and that through danmu, platforms such as Bilibili can become alternative spaces for democratic discussion, as well as virtual utopias against social pressures, repression, and control. For scholars of communication and media culture studies, discussions on the characteristics of danmu communication have focused on danmu subcultures and interactivity. Yan Fangjie analyzes the generation mechanism and subcultural significance of danmu from the perspective of media culture research, and argues that danmu are produced when teenagers, as a "productive" audience, engage in dialogues with "open" media texts. Liu et al. applied media synchronicity theory to analyze and found that all five media capabilities of the danmu system had a significant positive effect on perceived interactivity. Yu Bingjie and Leon Watts compared the perceptual impact of two forms of comment display, danmu comments and scrolling displays, by means of a qualitative study and found that participants using the danmu comment form possessed a stronger sense of solidarity, although they remembered less of the content of the comments. Taking Bilibili as a platform to study the characteristics of ACG subcultural groups, Chen Junjun et al. explored what interactive communication identity behaviors and behavioral motivations ACG preference groups have.

Danmu Content Characteristics Studies

In terms of the content characteristics of danmu, it primarily examines the content characteristics, emotional tendency and topic heat of danmu, as well as the role of danmu in interpreting, supplementing and interacting with video content. Some studies have found a herd effect and diverse bursts of danmu comments, and have proposed practical methods that can recognize and measure these two patterns. Some scholars delve into the superficial characteristics of danmu comments in videos; for example, Ouyang Zhao and Chen Yijin statistically analyze the danmu comment texts according to the types of videos and introduce the characteristics of danmu comments under different types of videos in terms of quantity, time, and emotional tendency. In addition, many scholars have conducted comparative studies between danmu commentaries and traditional video commentaries to analyze the similarities and differences between the two. Wu et al. compared user engagement in terms of the number of comments, comment sentiment, language patterns, and knowledge-sharing approaches and found that danmu significantly increased user engagement. Similar conclusions were reached in the study of Zhang Lu and Wang Ruojia, who compared the differences between users' commenting behavior on danmu and traditional commenting behavior in three aspects: video characteristics, user characteristics, and commenting content characteristics, and the comparison results found that danmu help to improve users' sense of engagement and have a facilitating effect on users' real-time interactions with the video content. Sun Xiaoning and Yaoqing compare and analyze the differences in time distribution, sentiment tendency, and user usage rate between danmu comments and traditional comments in popular videos of three types of scenes, namely, technology, digital, and life, in Bilibili, and find that there are significant differences between users' danmu comments and traditional comments in different scenes, with the traditional comments showing neutral sentiments, while the danmu comments in general are inclined to positive feelings.

Danmu System Technical Characteristics Studies

For online consumers, technological features are critical factors in shaping consumer perceptions, experiences, and behaviors. In the study of technical features of danmu system, most of the previous researches adopt a single perspective, which needs to be more effectively clarified the influence of different technical features. For instance, Daniel Johnson investigates the temporal characteristics of the danmu interface and proposes the "pseudo-synchronization" and "virtual time" of the danmu system, while Zhao Yuxiang and Tang Jian discuss how the gamification technology of the danmu system motivates uploaders to upload content. The first attempt to investigate the impact of different technological features was made by Zhao Pan. Based on the communication technology classification criteria, they proposed three variables, proposed synchronicity, perceived proximity and viewpoint support, to characterize the three dimensions of danmu technology features. A conceptual model was also proposed to explain the effects of different technological features on consumers' behavioral intention to use video websites in the future. Yang et al. compared the differences between recommendation vlogs and other video marketing in terms of consumers' co-viewing experience, proposed pseudo-synchronicity, danmu-vlog content consistency, and parallelism as technical features of danmu systems, and examined the influence of the technical features of danmu systems on the consumer loyalty of recommendation vlogs through empirical analyses.

Studies on the User Usage Behavior of Danmu Video Websites

The user usage behavior of danmu video websites is defined from a more macro perspective of some of the behaviors that users may do when using danmu video websites, which refers to the process of the activity of watching danmu videos or participating in danmu comments. There are also scholars who concretize the concept by defining the danmu commenting behavior as the interactive activity of video users sending their emotions and opinions to the video instantly, forming a large number of commenting information in the form of a bullet-like waterfall. This wiki page follows the macro-perspective definition and considers the connotations of danmu video site user usage behavior to include both danmu comment and video content viewing behaviors as well as danmu commenting behaviors. Research in the area of danmu usage behavior mainly combines related theories to explore users' motivation to utilize danmu and the impact of danmu systems on users' behavior.

Research Theories and Models

In order to explain people's motivations for whether or not they use a particular media, the uses and gratifications theory is one of the most widely used frameworks. Zhang Shuai pointed out that in the danmu video website, the user's usage behavior is primarily influenced by the three categories of emotional demand, cognitive demand and social demand, of which emotional demand is the most crucial driving factor, including entertainment, emotional belonging and pressure release. Starting from the perspective of flow theory, Yu Xin and Xu Zhengliang studied user behavior in webcasting platforms based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) model, and revealed that the interactivity, visibility, entertainment, and usefulness of danmu messages positively stimulate the users' danmu message participation behaviors through the sense of immersion. From the perspective of prominence-interpretation theory and relying on the SOR model, Fan Si explains the effects of the prominent features of spatial proximity and temporal proximity of danmu and the interpretive features of informational supplementation and affective synchronization on users' interactive participation in danmu. Feng Yuru and Deng Xiaozhao explored the factors influencing users' danmu commenting behavior based on the triadic interaction determinism of social cognitive theory, and found that self-efficacy and trust significantly affect users' danmu commenting behavior through empirical analysis.

Research Methodology

One study investigated people's motivations for watching danmu videos through a focus group study and found that people were primarily interested in getting information, entertainment, and social connections, and that introverted young people who were highly open to new experiences were more likely to watch danmu videos. Using the same interview analysis method, Wang Jiayi looked at the reasons for users' unfriendly comments in danmu reviews. Tong Chong and Zhao Yuxiang obtained the danmu samples and adopted the content analysis method to study and analyze the motives and behaviors of the users of danmu video websites, and discovered that the users' motives for danmu are mainly the information demand, entertainment demand and social enhancement demand, and on the basis of which, they generalized 14 kinds of danmu behaviors. Wang Yunzhi et al. argued that users posting danmu on danmu video websites are a type of information commenting behavior for video content, and used a semi-structured interview method and qualitative research method to construct a theoretical model of the driving factors of users' herd information comment behavior.

Extensive Use of the Danmu Function

The danmu function is also widely adopted in game live broadcasts, e-commerce live broadcasts, short videos, online education and other scenarios, and the research on the motivation and behavioral impact of danmu use in these fields also provides new ideas and perspectives for probing the use behaviors of users of danmu video websites. Li Yi and Guo Yunjun classified the interactive behaviors of live game broadcasting into ritualized behaviors (viewers giving virtual gifts to anchors) and instrumental behaviors (sending danmu), and identified that there were differences in viewers' motivations for these two behaviors, with information sharing, following trends and sense of belonging being the dominant motivations for live broadcasting viewers to deliver gifts, and social presentation and information sharing being the dominant motivations for viewers to post danmu. Danmu are also increasingly used in the development of online education, and empirical studies have shown that danmu can effectively enhance learner interactivity during online learning, increase course participation, and improve the learning experience. However, it has also been noted that danmu related to danmu content increased cognitive load, although they improved students' social presence, academic satisfaction, and academic performance.

By combing through the genesis and development of danmu and analyzing related studies on the topic of danmu, it can be seen that scholars are now actively focusing on its various aspects, such as comparing the similarities and differences between danmu comments and traditional comments, studying the characteristics of danmu, and exploring the motivations of users for using danmu. Although research on danmu has been gradually perfected in recent years, and there are a certain number of its works, mainly journal and newspaper articles, there are still some areas for improvement. First, in terms of research perspectives, there is a relative lack of targeted research, mostly focusing on the danmu video form itself, with less cross-cultural research combining danmu, danmu video sites, and research related to popular culture. Second, in terms of user experience, existing studies pay more attention to the positive experience that danmu comments bring and comparatively less to the negative impact that danmu may have on users. In addition, there are fewer studies that take individual user differences into account.

Apart from academic publications, more research and discussions on danmu and danmu video websites are scattered in forums, Baidu Tieba and other otaku culture network platforms. Though the contents of the discussions are extensive and even the authors have more senior positions, as ordinary network statements, these contents lack systematic and organized integration and are often statements of the phenomenon, which require interpretation from the perspective of professional communication. On the whole, the research on danmu presents the status quo as either shallow and single perspective or miscellaneous and needs more theory.

Conclusion

The word "danmu" saw a lot of changes from its use as a war tactic hundreds of years ago to its current meaning as special comments showing on the video screen, from people's debate over its pronunciation from analysis of the origin of the two Chinese characters and the word's contemporary usage, as well as Japan's ACGN subculture to its prominent role as a mass culture in the daily lives of Generation Z in China. Through cultural comparisons of danmu in China and non-Chinese platforms that either lack danmu or use danmu slightly differently, we draw out the popularity and development of danmu and danmu websites from a cultural perspective, and show the differences in cultural understanding and values brought about by cross-temporal and cross-cultural communication. From this, it is found and suggested that the survival and development of danmu and danmu websites are ongoing cultural issues that deserve to be explored.

Utilization of danmu provides viewers with a shared outlet, allowing them to post their own opinions on the screen, which enhances their sense of participation and engagement with the video content. It also allows them to express their emotions, whether in form of the wishes for the future, support for their idols, or feelings towards others. Initially, danmu might have been exclusive, with expressions specific to the MAG community, making it difficult for the general public to participate. However, over time, the scope of danmu has expanded from two-dimensional to three-dimensional, enabling more people to take part in using them. The use of danmu can also lead to serval issues, such as copyright or privacy violations, as well as the spread of rumours or misleading information. Therefore, how to use danmu responsibly, how to guide users, and how to protect underage individuals on these platforms remain urgent issues that need to be addressed.

The rapid development of the Internet and streaming media technology has made online video an essential part of people's daily lives. As a novel video media communication platform, danmu video-sharing websites have the development potential that cannot be compared with traditional video websites and have attracted many scholars to study them. The current research of scholars on danmu video websites primarily focuses on the study of user behavior of danmu video websites, which mainly includes the behavioral patterns and laws of users in terms of viewing, commenting and interaction;  a content analysis study of danmu video websites examines the content characteristics, emotional tendencies, and topic heat of danmu, as well as their role in interpreting, supplementing and engaging with video content, and the technical research of danmu video websites, which consists of the research on the technical means of danmu's generation and display, as well as the research on the interaction effect between danmu and videos.

At this stage, in the development of the mobile Internet and the social environment of multicultural blossoming, danmu sites have broken the original video viewing pattern, and a new interactive video era has arrived. The future of the danmu may not only be presented in the form of video in front of the eyes of the public, but to danmu movies, danmu TV and other new carriers of the test began to let the danmu into more areas. Danmu sites have also responded to the needs of the market, realizing cooperation with other industries and new modes of operation. These attempts may blur the boundaries of the public's perception of danmu, allowing it to incorporate more cultural elements and fresh blood and become a new cultural point of view.

References

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