The responses of the Djap Wurrung Indigenous community of Australia to threats against sacred birthing trees: a history and analysis of the resistance

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Summary

Historical, National Regional, and Cultural Context with respective to Case

Colonialism in Australia

Australia's first recorded European contact was with the British navigator, Captain James Cook when he encountered the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770. [1] Later on, Cook claimed his discovery as a possession of the British Crown, which enabled the establishment of a new British colony in the Southern globe. The aim of colonization is to alleviate overpopulation in prison and expand the British Empire and its power through the acquirement of land. [2] Eight years after its initial discovery, the first fleet with convicts, marines and civilians arrived at Sydney Cove in 1788 for a penal settlement. After, European settlement spread as new colonies were established across the nation. Here are the few of the many regions that were significantly influenced by colonization.[2]


✓ Van Diemen’s Land, today’s Tasmania

✓ Port Phillip District, in what is now Victoria

✓ Moreton Bay, near Brisbane

✓ Adelaide, in South Australia


Cook’s discovery is recent in comparison to 60,000 years of development of more than 500 Aboriginal Nations, and their cultures, who existed at the time. [3]The Australian Indigenous community consisted of both the Aboriginal Nations and the Torres Strait Islanders. The Torres Strait Islanders have also coexisted in the land for more than 5,000 years. Unfortunately, these traditional custodians of the land suffered from immense social crisis due to European settlement. [3] According to estimates, the “full-blood” Aboriginal population decreased by 96% from one million in 1788 to the remaining 58,000 in 1920s [4]. Although some disagree with the accuracy of this calculation by arguing it is an exaggeration, there is more than enough evidence to support the drastic decline in Aboriginal population between the 19th and early 20th century. [4]


The devastating genocide

Lack of immunity against epidemics such as smallpox, influenza or measles that were introduced by the European’s arrival was one source of  the large number of deaths amongst the Indigenous communities. According to Arthur Phillip, Captain of the first fleet, smallpox was responsible for killing half of the Indigenous population in Sydney within the first fourteen months of their arrival. [2][5]

In addition to the threats to physiological health, intentional damages were a source of death and destruction. These damages included culture assimilation, acquisition of Indigenous land, sexual exploitation, physical abuse, and massacres of Indigenous communities; leading to the unfortunate reduction in Indigenous populations and tragic cultural genocide. Friction between the Europeans and the Natives was inevitable because of the long-term competition for resources and difference in lifestyles.[6] Some consider colonization as a process of “introducing the superior western civilization” and believe that Aboriginal people were “doomed to extinction”;they omit the gruesome truth . The convenient assumption that “Aboriginal race extinction was irreversible” has made many felt exonerated from the unjust violence.[4]

           One of the most unsuccessful British settlements was undeniably in Van Diemen’s Land, also known Tasmania today. [3] In 1803, British created an outpost on the Van Diemen’s Land. In the following year, evidence recorded 60 murders of Aborigines, possible when they were approaching the town. [7] In addition to disease, dispossession and intermarriage, the collapse of Aboriginal communities was also a result of the Black War. From 1824 to 1831 In 1830, an armed group known as the “Black Line” was ordered to remove tribes in Big River and Oyster Bay by Sir George Arthur. [8]The Black Line failed to remove all tribes from their settled district, indicating the Aboriginal resistance. In spite of the effort to resist, Aboriginal population of Tasmania sharply dropped from thousands to a few hundreds. [9][10] The Myall Creek massacre in New South Wales exemplified similar conflict in other parts of Australia as well. If one really pays attention to the timeline for the devastating century, they would notice that massacres took place frequently until 1928 and many were killed just for resisting.  (Behrendt, 2013)[3]


The interpretation of history

In his ground-breaking work on Aboriginal studies, “The Other Side of the Frontier'', Henry Reynolds provides historical context through nuanced delineation of interactions between Indigenous communities and the Europeans. The presentation of Indigenous values is  strongly focused on their respect for the land and natural resources. His work also sheds light upon the Aboriginal resistance against British conquest, enabling many to realize the inseparable community-led resistance intertwined with settler-colonial history. [11] By introducing the Indigenous lifestyles, cultures and conflicts with British, many topics avoided by previous literatures are mentioned and reinvestigated. Diction such as “invasion” is in juxtaposition with prior sources’ use of “settlement” .[12] The discussion of Frontal War on VanDiemen’s Land put an emphasis on the “black” sides .[11] Reynolds claims that the intention is not to make the audience simply regard Aboriginal people as victims, but his work did provide reasons for people to commemorate the sacrifices of the Frontier War. [12]Aside from Henry Reynolds, other historians such as Lyndall Ryan and Charles Rowley also recorded notorious atrocities against the Aboriginal communities during colonization. [13]

Though many historians recognize the suffering of Aboriginal communities, there are  opposing voices that doubt the validity of these works. Keith Windschuttle, a primary antagonizing historian, questions the evidence used in Reynolds and Ryan’s work and attacks almost all their opinions [11]. In The fabrication of Aboriginal history, Windschuttle explicitly claimed that the Aboriginal death numbers are “an amplification of the actual situation”. Ironically, when he accused Renolds and Ryan’s work of not using enough evidence, his own arguments are mostly based on anecdotal evidence and other unreliable sources.[13]Some of his opinions such as claiming that the skeletons near burial sites were kangaroos lacked support and could be extremely misleading. Unlike mainstream historians, Windschuttle believes the violence and extermination of the Aborigines can be justified if the British settlement was resisted. [13] Even Windschuttle himself recognizes the inhumane attacks on the Van Diemen’s Land is responsible for the Aborigines’ extinction.[13] Many other historians criticize Windschuttle for his failure to grasp the point. Many investigations regarding Aboriginal communities are not about the actual deaths or magnitude but about how European colonization has continually been destructive towards Aboriginal communities. Overall, the Aboriginal deaths from early settlement and resistance efforts may even be greater than the current records, we may not recognize the exact casualties given that many tribes did not use the same systems to record history . Like John Harris argues, “history tends to be written from the perspective of the powerful” .[4] In this case, the European government who had more control over words recreated history from their own side rather than the Indigenous societies. Therefore, those who have more power in literature should be more considerate of both parties if they aim to publish unbiased work.


The Djap Wurrung

The Djap Wurrung’s, also known as the Djapwurrung or Tjapwurrung, presence on their land can be traced back to 40,000 years.[14] Today, the Djap Wurrung land spreads over 7,000 km2, from Mount Rouse to Hamilton. [15] The Djap Wurrung societies are  composed of at least eleven bands, following two different matrilineal systems (Tindale, 1974).[15] Their lifestyle is partially hunting and gathering, but there is also evidence of agriculture practices. Some aboriginal activists’ theories suggest that the traditional ball-kicking Aboriginal game initiated within the Wimmera tribe has inspired contemporary Australian football and the formation of its rules. [16]Trees have intrinsic spiritual meanings in the Djap Wurrung culture.[17] Births are witnessed  by these trees and those who have passed on are buried near the trees. [17]

European settlement has made a great impact on the Djap Wurrung Nation. The first contact was marked in 1836, when the invasion began. [18] The resistance against European invasion included stealing sheep and driving off, while the settlers broke this resistance with massacre. By 1842, there were at least 35 reports of massacres, however very little of these developed into court investigations against the settlers. [18] By 1841, some of the tribes were put into reserves and resistance to European invasion increased. According to estimates, the Djap Wurrung population shrunk from 2,050 to 615 (Mallet, 2002). About three quarters of the population pre-contact vanished due to disease, massacres, poison and starvation. [19] Later on, Djap Wurrung land also attracted large numbers of Europeans and Chinese that wanted to search for gold. [18]


Aboriginal people Today

Today, there are 250 unique language groups within the continent of Australia and only about three percent of Australian population claims  Aboriginal heritage. [20] In comparison to the existence of more than 500 nations before British colonization, this is a drastic decline. Though separated from their traditional land, confronting massacres and being exposed to diseases, the Indigenous communities are still resistant and adaptive to changes .[3][20]

Contemporary Indigenous people live across urban, rural and remote areas of Australia.Many Federal laws explicitly discriminate against the Aboriginals, for example the Mental Deficiency Bill passed in 1939 which identified “inefficient groups”, including the “slum dwellers, homosexuals, prostitutes, alcoholics, and of course aboriginal people” .[21] Though this Bill was soon abolished for serious racial discrimination, the earliest Federal law that applied to Aboriginal Australian’s rights was not passed until 1967. [20]. Even as recent as 1972, the Prime Minister still denied all Aboriginal land rights publicly in his national speech, as he considered Aboriginal land-use to be inefficient economically and socially. [21]

Major struggles for Aboriginal communities still involve the retainment of cultural heritage, loss of identity, as well as government recognition. The State of Victoria proposed a treaty with the Aboriginal population that recognizes Aboriginal sovereignty and provides compensation. Unfortunately, this is only a proposal and there have not been nation-wide treaty in Australia either, therefore making Australia as the only country that have not signed an authorized treaty with Indigenous peoples in the British Commonwealth. [20]

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered a formal apology for the profound impact of colonization on Indigenous communities and recognized former mistreatments in the 2008 Federal Government Parliament. [22] In the 1990’s, the agenda of “reconciliation” became clear, however, there have been limited actions taken or changes made regarding issues that Indigenous communities face. According to statistics, many Indigenous peoples are still disadvantaged in health, education and employment, however there are successful examples of those who overcome these barriers (Tokinson et al., 2018). The effective means include increased schooling and literacy as well as medical services training. [3] The work of Aboriginal activists has also achieved some extent public approval and engagement with the non-Aboriginal communities, accompanied with increasing non-Aboriginal empathy towards heartbreaking mistreatment towards Aboriginal Australians, and a fascination to explore more about their diverse cultures. [22]

Administration Arrangements

The Djap Wurrung Embassy have declared their sovereignty and “as survivors...will not concede [their] land rights” [23]. The Aboriginal Heritage Act in 2006 promises to appropriately protect and manage the areas around the Western Highway. [24] Therefore, it is government’s duty to provide protection. This Act also provide the rules for management, as it must respect Aboriginal self-determination, and recognize Aboriginal communities as the Traditional Owners and primary guardians. [24]This Act establishes the Victorian Aboriginal Heritage Council (VAHC), which is responsible for appointing Registered Aboriginal Parties and provides suggestions for the Minister for Aboriginal Affairs that applies rules to the entire state. [24]By working together with local Aboriginal groups, the VAHC can have an exhaustive assessment of the Act . If the Elders of Djap Wurrung are not satisfied with the cultural heritage protection, they can choose to report back to the Victorian Aboriginal Council that is responsible for monitoring protection. [24].Reconciliation and full consent is necessary prior to any outsiders’ acts. In addition, this act also addresses that the Djap Wurrung have their own right to decide who can represent their cultural heritage. [24]

References

  1. ↑ (Cook, J. (1770) wiki "Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770". Retrieved from http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Australians together. (n.d) Colonisation.(Website) Retrived from https://australianstogether.org.au/discover/australian-history/colonisation/#colonisationreference2
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Behrendt, 2013
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Harris, John.(2003). Aboriginal History, Vol. 27“Hiding the Bodies, the myth of humane colonization of Australia” https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p73641/pdf/book.pdf
  5. ↑ Bladen, F. M. (1892). Historical Records of New South Wales (Vol. 1). C. Potter.
  6. ↑ "Colonial period, 1788–1901". Australian War Memorial.
  7. ↑ Elder, B. (2003). Blood on the wattle: Massacres and maltreatment of Aboriginal Australians since 1788. Sydney: New Holland.
  8. ↑ Kenyon, S.(1928) .The Victorian Historical Magazine,; J. Fenton, A History of Tasmania; Historical Records of Australia, ser. I, vols. XIX to XXII and XXVI; Kenyon Records at Public Library, Melbourne.
  9. ↑ Boyce, J. (2006). The Companion to Tasmanian History. Retrieved from https://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/F/Fabrication.html
  10. ↑ "History of Australia, Colonisation". Wikipedia.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Reynolds, H. (2006). The other side of the frontier: Aboriginal resistance to the European invasion of Australia. UNSW Press.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia by Henry Reynolds". Goodreads.com.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Windschuttle, K. (2003). The fabrication of Aboriginal history. Sydney Papers, The, 15(1), 20.
  14. ↑ "Djap Wurrung". Wikipedia.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Tindale, Norman Barnett (1974). "Tjapwurong (VIC)". Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names. Australian National University Press. ISBN 978-0-708-10741-6.
  16. ↑ Dawson, James (1881). Australian Aborigines: The Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of Victoria, Australia (PDF). Melbourne: George Robertson.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Richards, Thomas; Bennett, Catherine M; Webber, Harry (2013). "A post-contact Aboriginal mortuary tree from southwestern Victoria, Australia". Journal of Field Archaeology. 37 (1): 62–72. doi:10.1179/0093469011z.0000000005.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Clark, Ian D. (1995). Scars in the Landscape: a register of massacre sites in western Victoria, 1803–1859 (PDF). AIATSIS. pp. 57–84. ISBN 0 85575 281 5.
  19. ↑ Mallett, Ashley (2002). The Black Lords of Summer: The Story of the 1868 Aboriginal Tour of England and Beyond. University of Queensland Press. pp. 169–175. ISBN 978-0-702-23262-6.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Blakemore, Erin. "Aboriginal Australians". National Geographic.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Tarpey-Brown, F. (2019). Glimpsing Cracks in the Present: Acts of Utopian Desire and Resistance at Gezi Park and the Aboriginal Tent Embassy. Studies in Arts and Humanities, 5(1), 67-76
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Tonkinson, R., & Berndt, R. M. (2018, April 19).Aboriginal Peoples In Australian Society. Encyclopeedia Britannica.  Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Australian-Aboriginal/Aboriginal-peoples-in-Australian-society
  23. ↑ "Protect Sacred Trees. Save 80,000 years of culture". DW Embassy.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Kanoa, Tim. "Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Management Plan Western Highway Duplication". aboriginalvictoria.
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