Parental Affect in Gender Development
Introduction
The debate on how nature and nurture affects child development has long been discussed, with evidence indicating contributions from both. Like most other aspects of character development, gender is often attributed to holding both a biological and psychosocial basis. Studies have shown how most of the stereotypic attributes and roles linked to gender are actually influenced by an individual’s environment and culture [1]. One especially important factor, which can be seen to influence a child's gender development, is the way parents shape their environment and model gender roles.
Theoretical Understandings
Gender Identity
The term Gender Identity describes the extent to which an individual experiences themselves as being like others of a specific gender. It has been found that an individual’s sense of being male or female is largely determined by the way they are treated by others and the stereotypes that they aim to fulfill [2].
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
According to Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory, gender identity assumed as the basic organizer and regulator of a child’s gender learning. It explains that children develop and learn the stereotyped attributes of a certain gender from their surrounding environment, especially from watching and listening to the way gender is demonstrated by those they hold close relationships with (i.e. parents).
Once a child establishes knowledge of their own gender, there is a reciprocal interplay of behaviours and thoughts engaged in by the child which leads to an eventual stable gender identity formation.
Reaching this stage of gender constancy, a stage in which the conception of one’s own gender is fixed and irreversible, a child is understood to go forward with their gender identity, seeking to behave only in the ways that are congruent with that specific gender [1].
Other Psychological Theories
Psychological theories have also explained gender learning using a familial transmission model. This model states how a child’s acquisition of “appropriate” gender typical behaviours [1] as well as understanding of gender as a mutually exclusive category is strongly adopted from the family. This may be from how a child perceives different gender roles in their family, gaining gendered information passively, but can also include the ways a child's parents actively encourages proper gender conduct[3].
It has also been found that parents who hold an Essentialist point of view towards gender, influence their children to hold the same beliefs. This perspective argues that gender is predetermined and directly related to one's biological sex[4]. It sees that "all males are inherently masculine and all females are inherently feminine"[3]. This not only silences the possible contributions of psychosocial and environmental influencers on gender development, but also any queer forms of gender or biological sex.
Infancy and Early Childhood
Studies of child development have typically shown that there is a critical period in which learning occurs. As for gender development, this period begins during a child's infancy and early childhood and later furthers its development and consistency with experience and time.
Child's Environment
Parent’s influence of gender identity in their children can already be seen at the onset of infancy and early childhood. This is easily identified with the way parents structure the physical environments of the child, such filling girl’s rooms with pink and dolls but a boy’s rooms with blue and truck. Parents also put efforts into shaping the appearance of their child with stereotypically gendered norms such as dressing girls in pastel jeans or skirts and boys in rugged trousers. They are also given different hairstyles and accessories to accompany their gendered attire [5]. From these actions, parents indicate to both the child and others the gender of their child[6].
Controlled Play Behaviors and Gender Segregated Play
The type of play that children typically engage in is also largely mediated by their parents. For instance, parents "convey to their children positive and negative sanctions through affective reactions and evaluative comments" regarding the appropriateness of their play[1]. These sanctions which come in the form of frowns and smiles are highly salient events which direct early non-verbal children's play and other behaviours. Parents also separate play to be sex-specific[1].
It has also been found that fathers, during the early years of child development, are more stereotypic socializers than are mothers. They hold more sex-role stereotypes and are especially strict with the performance of gender-appropriate behaviours with sons over daughters. For instance, fathers tend to regard boys as hardier and as a result encourage them to engage in more physical play and exploration while responding more negatively if they were to play with dolls [7].
Early Toy Preferences
Studies have shown that parents are more likely to purchase gender-traditional toys for their children. This shapes their child’s growing interest in certain activities and toys. With this, it is seen that depending on the toys provided by a child’s parents, it may result in teaching the child traditionally feminine or masculine roles [8].
Late Childhood and Adolescence
Identity formation, "an individual process in which adolescents explore and commit to identity-defining roles and values in a variety of life domains"[2], tends to occur during the late childhood and early adolescent years of development. Although there are great variations seen among identities formed, a main contributor in this development is the child’s gender identity.
Modelling and Gender Roles
Most of a child's gender role learning is acquired through watching salient same-sex individuals, such as their mother or father. As they grow older, they begin to understand and learn more about the roles associated with each gender through their parent's actions. For instance, a pre-adolescent girl may think that it is "normal" or appropriate for a woman to stay home to care for children if this is what her mother models consistently.
It is also in adolescence that gender intensification occurs. This means an adolescent feels greater pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles and as a result there is further differentiation in gender-role identification seen between boys and girls[9].
Affect on Personal Identity
Much of the negative sanctions felt by children who do not conform to gender norms is intensified as they reach adolescence. On the contrary, when children and adolescents forcefully conform to a gender which they may not entirely identify with, it results in feelings of inauthenticity and loneliness[3].
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Bussey, K. & Bandura A. (1999). Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development and Differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Steensma, T.D., Kreukels, B. P.C., De Vries, A. L.C. & Cohen-Kettenis, P.T. (2013). Gender identity development in adolescence. Hormones and Behaviour, 64(2), 288-297.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Brinkman, B.G., Rabenstein, K. L., Rosen, L. A., & Zimmerman, T. S. (2014). Children's Gender Identity Development: The Dynamic Negotiation Process Between Conformity and Authenticity. Youth & Society, 46(6), 835-852.
- ↑ Delphy, C. (1993). Rethinking sex and gender. Women’s Studies International Journal, 16(1), 1-9.
- ↑ Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- ↑ Thompson, S. K., & Bentler, P. M. (1971). The priority of cues in sex discrimination by children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 5, 181-185.
- ↑ Siegal, M. (1987). Are sons and daughters treated more differently by fathers than by mothers? Developmental Review, 7(3), 183-209.
- ↑ Etaugh, C. (1992). Home, School, and Playroom: Training Grounds for Adult Gender Roles. Sex Roles, 26(3-4), 129-147.
- ↑ Hill, J.P., Lynch, M.E., 1983. The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In: Brooks-Gunn, J., Petersen, A. (Eds.), Girls at Puberty: Biological and Psychosocial Perspectives. Plenum, New York, pp. 201–228.