Muscles Defining Masculinity
It has recently been discovered that men feel unsatisfied with their appearance as there is “pressure to be fit and muscular”[1] and conform to the "Western stereotype of traditional hegemonic masculinity"[2]. The reinforced "stereotype of the muscular mesomorph"[3] ultimately causes men to "develop a drive for muscularity"[4]; a term coined by McCreary and Sasse[3]. The pressure that arises from men attempting to conform to “traditional norms of masculinity”[5] brings men to body shame as “muscularity is understood to be an extension of masculinity”[5], supporting the perception that "the more muscular a man or boy is, the more masculine he is"[6]. As a method to demonstrate their masculinity, men choose to focus on “exerting control over their muscle development”.[5] Furthermore, men used to be the breadwinner but since women can now easily take on this role, muscularity becomes more important as an indication of masculinity.[1]
Muscle Dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia is categorized as a mental disorder which refers to “a perceived inadequacy of size and muscularity accompanied by social and occupational dysfunction, excessive exercise, restrictive dieting, and risky supplement and drug use”[4].
Muscularity and Masculinity
Muscularity is defined as anything relating to the muscle while masculinity is defined as traits perceived as characteristics of men.
Drive for Muscularity
The drive for muscularity is defined as “a person’s desire to increase levels of muscle and decrease body fat to achieve a muscular physique”[4].
Media Influence
The ideal male appearance in today’s Western society includes an increasingly muscularized body, with "media portrayals of highly muscular male body images"[6]. Men cultivate a negative body image as images in magazines entice men to develop their “drive for muscularity”[5]. Advertisements targeting men have increasingly become objectifying as the portrayed images are “highly eroticized and body focused”.[7] A prime example of what society considers a hyper-masculine man is known as 'the Rock', or rather Dwayne Johnson, whereas Jim Parsons lies as a hypo-masculine man on the other end of the masculinity spectrum. The increased spotlight on masculinity being presented as a muscularized physique increases male body dissatisfaction, as men strive to become more muscularized themselves.
Threats to Masculinity
Multiple studies examine the association between the threat of masculinity with male body dissatisfaction and conclude that “threats to masculinity result in increased muscle dissatisfaction”.[7] Hunt et al support the threatened masculinity theory, concluding that a threat to masculinity results in a man’s decreased confidence in their physical strength as well as the reporting of a less muscular appearance in relation to their current body image[7]. A product of a threat to a man’s masculinity can be increased anxiety over appearance as well as the yearning to participate in activity to increase muscularity as there is a "increased pursuit of the muscular body ideal"[7].
Factors Affecting the Drive for Muscularity
Sexual Orientation
It is believed that sexual orientation plays a role in the “desire for increased muscularity”[8]. In comparison to heterosexual males, gay and bisexual men reported to have a higher drive for muscularity which supports the findings of body dissatisfaction to be greater among gay and bisexual males[9][8][7]. In Western society, being more muscular means that you are more “visually and sexually appealing to among gay and bisexual men”[8] as "men with muscular or toned bodies are also preferred by many gay men"[1]. An additional reason for the desire of increased muscularity for gay and bisexual men is the idea that an "excessively masculine image"[7] can “reduce the potential impact of homophobia”[8] and can thwart suggestions that "being gay equates to being feminine"[7].
Racial/Ethnic Minorities
The majority of studies focusing on men’s drive for muscularity predominantly excludes “nonminority samples”[6]. For Asian American men, there is great “pressure rooted in Western hegemonic masculinity”[6] and Asian American men have a biological predisposition to possess a body type separate from the “White-centric aesthetic ideal”[6] that contribute to the “elevated concerns regarding muscularity in this group”[6]. Researchers discovered that men who belong to minorities who do not fit the traditional male Western physique are “often unhappy with their appearance and may feel less masculine”[6]. Recent literature illustrates that Asian and Asian American men have a “higher drive for muscularity and lower body satisfaction than did Whites and Blacks”[6]. The racial discrimination that Asian American men face may just be the thing that makes them increases their drive for muscularity to “reclaim their masculinity”[6].
Methods to Gain Muscles
Researchers who investigated gender differences in body image concerns used to solely regard adiposity (body fat) but this research led people to believe that since men are less concerned than women about their adiposity, they therefore are content with their bodies, are less likely to be on a diet, and are not as likely to suffer from eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia. It is reported by McCreary et al. that men who have a higher drive for muscularity "weight trained more often and they adopted a diet designed to increase bulk"[3]. Researchers hypothesized that men's increased drive for muscularity is related to "specific appearance-altering behaviours, including exercise participation, disordered eating, and supplement consumption"[4]. Numerous men are at risk for "using anabolic androgenic steroids and other types of performance enhancing supplements"[3], which can put men at greater risk for "coronary heart disease, kidney and liver damage, and reduced functioning of the immune system"[8]. It has been suggested that men who diet or desire leanness, instead of the usual muscular body, are possibly perceived as following a more traditional feminine role[10]. The threat to a man's masculinity ensues a need for men to change their behaviour with the intention to gain muscle.
Muscularity and Masculinity
The ideal male physique presently includes the “muscular mesomorphic shape”[3] which is “achieved by both an increase in muscle mass and a decrease in adipose tissue”[4]. Men who stray from traditional hegemonic masculine norms and instead conform to more “feminine norms [are] uniquely associated with muscle dissatisfaction, [and] muscularity-oriented disordered eating"[11] as a drive for muscularity results in "an increase in internalized homonegativity"[8].
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Frederick, D. A.; Shapiro, L. M.; Williams, T. R.; Seoane, C. M.; McIntosh, R. T.; Fischer, E. W. (2017). "Precarious manhood and muscularity: Effects of threatening men's masculinity on reported strength and muscle dissatisfaction". Body Image. 22: 156. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.07.002.
- ↑ Gattario, K. H.; Frisen, A.; Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M.; Ricciardelli, L. A.; Diedrichs, P. C.; Yager, Z.; Franko, D. L.; Smolak, L. (2015). "How is men's conformity to masculine norms related to their body image? Masculinity and muscularity across Western countries". Psychology of Men & Masculinities. 16 (3): 337–347. doi:10.1037/a0038494.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 McCreary, D. R.; Sasse, D. K. (2000). "An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls". Journal of American College Health. 48 (6): 297–304. doi:10.1080/07448480009596271.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Tod, D; Edwards, C (2015). "A meta-analysis of the drive for muscularity's relationships with exercise behaviour, disordered eating, supplement consumption, and exercise dependence". International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 8 (1): 185–203. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2015.1052089.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Davids, C. M.; Watson, L. B.; Gere, P. G. (2018). "Objectification, Masculinity, and Muscularity: A Test of Objectification Theory with Heterosexual Men". Sex Roles. 80 (7): 443–457. doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0940-6.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Cheng, H-L; McDermott, R.C.; Wong, Y. J.; La, Susanna (2016). "Drive for muscularity in Asian American men: Sociocultural and racial/ethnic factors as correlates". Psychology of Men & Masculinities. 17 (3): 215–227. doi:10.1037/men0000019.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Hunt, C. J.; Gonsalkorale, K.; Murray, S. B. (2013). "Threatened masculinity and muscularity: An experimental examination of multiple aspects of muscularity in men". Body Image. 10 (3): 290–299. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.02.007.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Brennan, D. J.; Craig, S. L.; Thompson, D. E. W. (2012). "Factors associated with a drive for muscularity among gay and bisexual men". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 14 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1080/13691058.2011.619578.
- ↑ Eiks-Nes, T. T.; Austin, S. B.; Blashill, A. J.; Murray, S. B.; Calzo, J. P. (2018). "Prospective health associations of drive for muscularity in young adult males". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 51 (10): 1185–1193. doi:10.1002/eat.22943.
- ↑ McCreary, D. R.; Saucier, D. M.; Courtenay, W. H. (2005). "The Drive for Muscularity and Masculinity: Testing the Associations Among Gender-Role Traits, Behaviors, Attitudes, and Conflict". Psychology of Men & Masculinities. 6 (2): 83–94. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.6.2.83.
- ↑ Griffiths, S.; Murray, S. B.; Touyz, S. (2006). "Extending the masculinity hypothesis: An investigation of gender role conformity, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in young heterosexual men". Psychology of Men & Masculinities. 16 (1): 108–114. doi:10.1037/a0035958.