KIN 500C EXERCISE ENGAGEMENT IN INDIGENOUS POPULATION
Authors: Saif Zaman, Andrew Roberts, Hayden Sidey-Philips
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| Instructor: | Dr. Darren Warburton |
| Email: | darren.warburton@ubc.ca |
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Land Acknowledgment (Written by Saif)
We would also like to begin by acknowledging that the land on which this work was prepared is the unceded territory of the Coast Salish Peoples, including the territories of the xwməθkwəy̓əm (Musqueam), Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish), Stó:lō, and Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations. As non-Indigenous contributors, we recognize that we cannot fully understand the lived experiences, cultural knowledge, or diverse perspectives that shape Indigenous relationships with health, wellness, and physical activity. It is not our place to determine what the best exercise engagement practices are for any Indigenous individual or community. Instead, this work is grounded in a respectful effort to highlight existing research led by, or informed by, Indigenous voices. We emphasize the importance of centering Indigenous knowledge systems and continuing to learn from Indigenous-led initiatives to ensure that any practices or recommendations are culturally appropriate, relevant, and community-driven.
Introduction (Written by Saif)
What is Physical Activity Engagement in Indigenous Populations?
Physical activity engagement can refer to the involvement in exercise or movement that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health. Among Indigenous populations, however, physical activity engagement encompasses more than individual exercise routines, it reflects a broader understanding of health rooted in community, culture, and connection to land. While physical activity is a key determinant of health and helps prevent chronic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (World Health Organization, 2014). Indigenous perspectives often integrate movement with cultural traditions, intergenerational participation, and land-based practices. Across Indigenous communities in Canada, physical activity is most meaningful when it aligns with traditional lifestyles and is experienced collectively (Mainra et al., 2024).
Why is Physical Activity Engagement Important in Indigenous Populations?
Indigenous peoples in Canada continue to experience significant health disparities rooted in colonization, residential schools, systemic racism, and intergenerational trauma (Reading & Wien, 2009; Wilk et al., 2018). Physical inactivity remains higher among Indigenous communities compared to the general population, contributing to disproportionate rates of chronic conditions (McKinley, 2022). Social determinants such as poverty, housing insecurity, and limited access to culturally safe health services and recreation infrastructure are further barriers to physical activity (Reading & Wien, 2009). Moreover, mainstream approaches to promoting exercise often rely on Western, individualistic models that fail to resonate with Indigenous worldviews (Mainra et al., 2024). Recognizing and supporting culturally grounded, community-driven approaches to movement is essential for improving health outcomes and supporting wholistic well-being among Indigenous peoples (Mainra et al., 2024; Dahlberg et al., 2018).
Theoretical Frameworks (Written by Hayden)
Decolonizing Cardiac Rehabilitation
Understanding how people engage with movement through different theoretical frameworks must be considered when designing a cardiac rehabilitation program that resonates with Indigenous communities. While Western models offer valuable insights into motivation and behaviour change, a decolonized approach centres Indigenous perspectives on movement, well-being, and connection to community and land.
Western Worldview
Western frameworks for exercise engagement tend to focus on individual motivation, cognitive processes, and behaviour reinforcement. These models often emphasize structured programming, goal-setting, and quantifiable outcomes. Typical colonial indications of health and physical activity program success are with respect to individual goals based on measurable values such as exercise volume and intensity, program adherence, or performance improvement.
Indigenous Worldviews
Some Indigenous worldviews of health centre around the Medicine Wheel, a wholistic view of health comprised of balanced and interconnected physical, mental, social/emotional and spiritual/cultural domains (Lavallee, 2007). A wholistic view of health and wellness is not only about physical health and exercise engagement programs which do not take into account the needs of other health domains will struggle to motivate Indigenous people.
It is important to understand that Indigenous worldviews are not all the same. Some may share commonalities, but each people and community have their own distinct worldview and set of values. Successful work with Indigenous communities starts with understanding their worldview first. Additionally, understanding worldviews requires us to link concepts to engage with new ideas, integrating one worldview into the other risks diluting Indigenous knowledge into Western colonial knowledge and can further alienate Indigenous peoples.
Linking Theoretical Models
Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) describes motivation on a continuum, from extrinsic (driven by external pressures or rewards) to intrinsic (driven by interest, enjoyment, or personal values) (Deci & Ryan, 1985). According to SDT, individuals are more likely to sustain long-term physical activity when they feel a sense of autonomy, competence, and connection (Deci & Ryan, 1985). For Indigenous participants, this could involve engaging in culturally significant forms of movement such as hunting or traditional dancing. A wholistic cardiac rehabilitation program supported by self-determination theory would prioritize choice, cultural identity, and activities that reflect the traditions of the individual or community (Field et al., 2022).
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) emphasizes the role of self-efficacy and social modelling in shaping behaviour (Bandura et al., 1998). Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their ability to succeed, while behaviour modelling involves learning through observation (Bandura et al., 1998). In Indigenous contexts, self-efficacy may be fostered through mentorship, particularly from Elders or knowledge keepers (Field et al., 2022). Observing respected community members participating in traditional forms of movement, such as snowshoeing, drumming, or walking the land, can encourage others to engage in physical activity in ways that feel meaningful and familiar (Stajkovic et al., 1998).
Behaviour Change Models
Models of behavioural change, including the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) and habit formation theory, provide insight into how individuals adopt and maintain new behaviours (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). TTM outlines five stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). Each stage requires different forms of support, which should be adapted to acknowledge the specific barriers Indigenous participants may face, including intergenerational trauma, limited access to culturally relevant services, and mistrust of the healthcare system which may disrupt the adoption of new habits (Lavallee, 2007). Habit formation approaches can also be used to promote physical activity as part of everyday life. Walking on traditional lands or participating in regular seasonal activities may help reinforce movement as a lifelong practice rather than a temporary colonial intervention imposed onto Indigenous peoples (Field et al., 2022).
Barriers to Exercise Engagement (Written by Saif)
Historical and Cultural Disruptions
Many Indigenous communities face a range of barriers when it comes to participating in physical activity. These challenges are often deeply connected to the lasting impacts of colonization and the systemic issues that continue today (McKinley, 2020). A central issue is the impact of historical and intergenerational trauma. Colonial policies such as the Indian Act, residential schools, and forced relocation have disrupted traditional ways of life and severed deep connections to land, culture, and knowledge transfer across generations. Traditional forms of physical activity, such as hunting, fishing, gardening, and ceremonial dancing were once deeply woven into daily life and Indigenous identity. Traditional forms of movement once held deep cultural, spiritual, and social meaning for many Indigenous communities. The decline of these practices has contributed not only to more sedentary lifestyles but also to a weakened sense of identity and motivation around being active. Western fitness programs prioritize outcomes such as weight management and the prevention of illness. These outcomes often fail to incorporate Indigenous worldviews, which place greater importance on spiritual connection, and wholistic health and wellness. As a result, many Indigenous individuals may find these programs uninviting or even experience them as culturally insensitive or exclusionary (McKinley, 2020; Nelson et al., 2019).
Erosions of Family and Community Support
Family and community support are central to many Indigenous understandings of health and wellness. The decline and steady loss of the importance regarding these support systems has made it much harder for many to maintain regular physical activity (Mainra et al., 2024). Colonization has deeply impacted intergenerational relationships, often leaving individuals without active role models or mentors. Mainra et al. (2024) note, those who received strong encouragement or participated alongside family and friends were far more likely to engage in regular physical activity. In contrast, a lack of support was linked to lower activity levels. The breakdown of community ties not only affects motivation, but also limits access to the shared movement experiences that are often integral to Indigenous concepts of well-being.
Strategies to Promote Exercise Engagement (Andrew Roberts)
The promotion of exercise engagement within Indigenous communities in Canada needs to be approached tactfully so as to optimally blend culturally meaningful practices with general fitness strategies. It is important to understand that there is no single approach that will work well for every community, and the specific cultural context of that group of people (Paul et al., 2024). Physical inactivity represents a serious public health challenge for many Indigenous populations throughout Canada, contributing to disproportionate rates of chronic diseases including diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease (Boulanger et al., 2021; Thompson et al., 2020). These health disparities are inextricably linked to colonialism and atrocities committed against Indigenous people such as displacement of territories, disruption of cultural practices, as well as systemic barriers to health-promoting resources (Wilk et al., 2018).
It is also necessary to mention that engaging in physical activity is not something that any program can do for an individual. If someone is unwilling to participate in physical activity, even the most optimal program with the most up to date research will not be of any use. This may sound as though we are giving up on some people, however we prefer to think of it as having realistic expectations. Exercise engagement is not about having everyone participate to the full extent of their abilities, but rather moving the needle and hopefully getting most people more physically active than they were before. That being said, by combining common sense with relevant goal setting, social support, and habit building techniques, it is possible to facilitate programs that can help Indigenous individuals' physical well being through activity as well as their mental, emotional and spiritual well being.
In general, one of the more effective strategies for engaging in exercise is through setting realistic, accomplishable, and clear goals (Gerrard et al., 2018). A more western example of this would be setting a certain number of steps to walk every day or a specific number of times they would go to the gym per week. An Indigenous example of this could be engaging in a powwow dance several times per week. Technology, while not necessary, can be helpful for setting goals. Tracking steps or activities on smart watches or applications like Strava can be useful for tracking progress (Warburton et al., 2021). A related point is building habits of exercise. Daily habits such as incorporating movement into cultural traditions or walking instead of driving can make exercise require less motivation and make it a more natural part of life (Gerrard et al., 2018; Davidson & Garroway, 2022).
Another aspect that affects multiple facets of exercise is social support (Bingham et al., 2019). Exercising with friends, family, or community groups adds a social component to exercise and can make it more enjoyable, which should improve overall engagement. Additionally, being accountable to another person or group of people could increase individuals' motivation to exercise (Bingham et al., 2019; Mainra et al., 2024). Another aspect is that of the influence that the immediate community has on the individual.
Culturally Relevant Approaches for Indigenous Communities:
It is important that we do not offer strictly western solutions for exercise engagement. Traditional approaches to physical activity promotion often do not resonate with Indigenous communities when they overlook cultural contexts and impose Western ideals of exercise and fitness (Dahlberg et al., 2018; McKinley, 2022). Many Indigenous traditions already involve physical activity such as hunting, drumming, canoeing, and powwow dancing (Paul et al., 2024; Castro et al., 2023). These are only a few examples. Community-led programs are also essential. When Indigenous leaders and Elders take the lead, physical activity initiatives become more meaningful and sustainable, with Indigenous-led initiatives showing greater participation rates and longevity (Viscogliosi et al., 2020). Programs like Well Nation, which offers culturally tailored fitness resources, help bridge the gap between exercise and Indigenous identity (Indigenous Sport & Wellness Ontario, n.d.).
Indigenous Stages for Training (Andrew Roberts)
Active Start & FUNdamentals: Building a Foundation through Physical Literacy
During the early stages of the Indigenous Long-Term Participant Development Pathway, the cultivation of physical literacy plays a crucial role in establishing lifelong engagement in physical activity. Physical literacy, defined as the combination of competence, confidence, and motivation to move effectively across various environments, forms the foundation for both sport participation and general well-being (ILTPD, 2019, p. 29). Indigenous children frequently encounter systemic barriers that limit their access to safe, developmentally appropriate spaces for movement (Wilk et al., 2018; Jackson et al., 2021). Incorporating traditional games, dance, and land-based activities can foster early engagement while honoring cultural practices. At this stage, play-based learning and inclusive, community-oriented programming are essential. Families and caregivers are encouraged to serve as role models, reinforcing healthy behaviors through shared activity (Mainra et al., 2024). Elders and knowledge keepers can further support this development by connecting movement to cultural teachings and values (Paradis et al., 2020). This approach not only nurtures physical skills but also strengthens identity and community belonging. It is important to recognize that foundational movement skills do not emerge automatically; they must be intentionally developed through supportive environments. When these skills are instilled early, Indigenous children are more likely to sustain active lifestyles throughout their lives (ILTPD, 2019).
Learn to Train & Train to Train: Creating Opportunities and Addressing Barriers
As youth progress into the "Learn to Train" and "Train to Train" stages of the Indigenous Long-Term Participant Development Pathway, structured and consistent opportunities for physical development become increasingly significant. This phase is particularly effective for the acquisition of sport-specific skills, as it aligns with the optimal period for motor learning and physical adaptation (ILTPD, 2019, p. 20). However, many Indigenous communities continue to face structural barriers, such as limited access to facilities, qualified coaches, and equipment (Wilk et al., 2018; Jackson et al., 2021). Effective programs must therefore be adaptable, taking into consideration the diverse socio-economic and cultural realities of Indigenous youth. Training and competition environments should be culturally responsive, with coaches who are both technically competent and culturally aware. The inclusion of traditional activities such as canoeing, powwow dancing, and archery can help bridge contemporary sport practices with cultural expression (Paul et al., 2024). Furthermore, this stage presents an opportunity to foster emotional resilience and focus by integrating mental skills training with Indigenous practices such as smudging or storytelling (ILTPD, 2019). Community support remains essential to sustaining youth participation and minimizing dropout rates (Paradis et al., 2020). Program success in this stage depends on recognizing and nurturing the individual strengths and interests of participants. Supporting a positive sport experience during adolescence can significantly impact long-term engagement in physical activity and personal development.
Active for Life: Reclaiming Health and Wellbeing through Culturally Relevant Activity
The "Active for Life" stage of the Indigenous Long-Term Participant Development Pathway reflects a commitment to sustained engagement in physical activity across the lifespan. For many Indigenous adults, reconnecting with movement serves as both a health-promoting behavior and a means of cultural reclamation (Henderson & Youngbear-Tibbetts, 2021). This stage is informed by the Wholistic Model, which emphasizes the development of the physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, and cultural dimensions of the individual (ILTPD, 2019, p. 12). Exercise is viewed not only as a tool for maintaining physical health, but also as a pathway to personal and collective healing. Culturally relevant programs that incorporate land-based practices, ceremonial activities, and intergenerational participation are particularly effective in fostering motivation and belonging (Wilson & Rosenberg, 2022). For example, walking groups that include storytelling or spiritual practices like smudging contribute to both wellness and cultural continuity. It is important that programming at this stage is accessible, inclusive, and sensitive to the needs of Elders and individuals with varying physical abilities (Viscogliosi et al., 2020). Offering recreational opportunities in familiar community settings, rather than exclusively in traditional sport venues, can improve participation. Rather than emphasizing performance outcomes, the focus is on enjoyment, connection, and long-term health (Henderson & Youngbear-Tibbetts, 2021). Ultimately, fostering lifelong physical activity within Indigenous communities supports broader goals of resilience, self-determination, and collective well-being.
Exercise Engagement in Community Population (Written by Saif)
Indigenous Sport, Physical Activity & Recreation Council (I·SPARC)
A major impactful resource supporting exercise engagement in Indigenous communities in British Columbia is the Indigenous Sport, Physical Activity & Recreation Council (I·SPARC). As a community-rooted organization, I·SPARC plays a vital role in promoting culturally relevant and accessible opportunities for sport and physical activity. Through the implementation of the Aboriginal Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity Strategy (ASRPA Strategy), I·SPARC works in partnership with First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities to increase participation in movement-based programs that reflect Indigenous values and traditions. Their initiatives support youth, families, and Elders through land-based activities, organized sport, and community recreation. Furthermore, their goal is to foster wholistic health and well-being. By building local capacity and centering Indigenous knowledge systems, I·SPARC serves as a strong example of how community-driven, culturally grounded approaches can promote long-term engagement in physical activity. Their presence underscores the importance of supporting Indigenous-led solutions already making a difference on the ground (I·SPARC, 2025).
Healthy Living Initiative
The Healthy Living Initiative by I·SPARC is a powerful Indigenous-led, community-centred program which supports physical activity engagement across British Columbia. The program brings together community leaders who are passionate about health and wellness, and the initiative promotes well-being through four core areas: physical activity, healthy eating, respecting tobacco, and building healthy communities. Furthermore, the program has grown significantly, training over 3,400 Healthy Living Leaders and delivering more than 2,300 community-based programs that have reached over 73,000 participants (I·SPARC, 2025). The Healthy Living Initiative includes diverse offerings such as Indigenous Run/Walk/Wheel, FitNation, HealthBeat, and Honour Your Health Challenge, each tailored to meet the needs of local communities in culturally meaningful ways. Increasing access to physical activity and empowering local leadership, the Healthy Living Initiative is critical in making exercise more accessible, relevant, and sustainable for Indigenous peoples throughout the province (I·SPARC, 2025).
North American Indigenous Games
The North American Indigenous Games (NAIG) are a powerful exercise initiative and community resource that support the physical, mental, emotional, and cultural well-being of Indigenous youth. As highlighted in the Indigenous Long-Term Participant Development Pathway, NAIG is more than just a sporting event, rather it is a celebration of Indigenous identity, resilience, and cultural pride through sport. These games provide a culturally safe and inclusive environment that encourages physical activity, builds self-confidence, and fosters a strong sense of belonging. Through sport and cultural expression, NAIG empowers Indigenous youth to connect with their heritage and envision a positive path forward.
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