Just Food Project: Gender, Equity and Food Security

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

This module explores relationships between food, gender, and social justice through feminist and queer lenses. Food insecurity disproportionately affects womxn, trans, queer, and non-binary people (see Key Terms for definition of terms). Feminist and queer lenses aim to draw attention to issues in society by examining how dominant assumptions, analytic approaches, and thematic foci are shaped by power relations, norms of gender and sexuality as well as their intersections with race, nationality, class and other categories of difference. This framework also aims to shift away from the dominance of white, cisgender male viewpoints and experiences and to uplift knowledges and experiences of marginalized communities, including womxn, trans, queer, and racialized communities.

By the end of this module, learners will be able to examine the roles of gender and its relationship to food justice by analyzing how the gender binary as well as corporeal, sociocultural, and material oppression create and maintain food system inequities. Learners will explore the history of resistance efforts employed by womxn, trans, queer and racialized communities to mobilize food system change. Through these contextualized understandings, students will identify and develop solutions and strategies addressing gender & sexuality-based inequities in food systems.

Key Themes: Gender; Food Security; Patriarchy; Diet, Nutrition & Human Health; Agriculture; Labour; Race; Grassroots Movements; Intersectionality; Power Relations; Gender Binary; Feminism; Feminist Food Studies; Queer; Sexual Orientation; Heteronormativity

Learning Outcomes

  1. Define gender normativity and gender performativity to explore how this impacts your relationship with food.
  2. Analyze and distinguish the ways in which the gender binary reproduces food insecurity and inequities in the corporeal, sociocultural and material domains of the food system.
  3. Examine how womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender nonconforming people engage in resistance efforts, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of existing solutions and strategies to mobilize food system change.

Background

[Adapted and modified from Trans 101 by Rae Larson and Glossary of Terms by Egales Canada Human Rights Trust] A graphic of a person smiling with a giant avocado on their shoulders. There is a patch of grass by their feet with wildflowers and butterflies and a hummingbird around them. There are definitions of four key terms pointing to different parts of the person's body, including: 1. Gender identity: A person’s internal and individual experience of gender (man, woman, trans, queer, non-binary) 2. Sexual orientation (or attraction): A person’s potential for emotional, intellectual, spiritual, intimate, romantic, and/or sexual behaviour and sexual desire in other people (asexual, gay, pansexual, heterosexual, bisexual, lesbian, two-spirit and more) 3. Gender expression: The way a person presents, performs and communicates gender within a social context (through bodily characteristics or behaviours such as clothing, speech, body language, hairstyle, voice and more) 4. Sex: The classification of a person as male, female or intersex based on biological characteristics, including chromosomes, hormones, external genitalia and reproductive organs.

Sex, Gender and Sexuality

Often, people assume that sex and gender are synonymous and that sexuality is as simple as whether or not you are attracted to the opposite gender. However, these false assumptions do not reflect the complexity of gender identity and they reinforce a heteronormative gender binary (dichotomy).

Sex refers to biological categorizations, such as the assignments made at birth, of one of the three sex categories: male, female, or intersex. As Adams described, these categories are based in part on external genitalia, but also on “internal sex organs, chromosomes and hormones”.[1] In terms of chromosome and hormones, sex is categorized by males having XY chromosomes and “high levels of testosterone”, females having XX chromosomes and “high levels of estrogen”, and intersex people having a combination of these chromosomal characteristics (XXX, XXY, XYY) or an ambiguous set of characteristics that aren’t distinctly male or female. Sex as a medical and biological categorization is not universal though, as some societies such as Indigenous communities focus instead on how social roles distinguish members’ identities in the society.[2]

Sexuality is not the same as biological sex as described above, and is not influenced exclusively by sex. Sexuality describes a person’s attraction (or lack thereof) to others based on physicality, emotionality, and gender identities.[1] Various sexual orientations include homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, asexual, pansexual, questioning, and more.

Also in contrast to sex, which is based upon biological sex anatomy, gender is a fluid spectrum that reflects how people feel about their gender identity.[3] There are people who feel that their gender corresponds with their sex. For example, those who were assigned the female sex at birth and feel that their gender is accurately described as ‘womxn’ ‘female’, or ‘girl’ are considered cisgender.[3] Others may not identify with their assigned sex, preferring instead to be identified as trans, non-binary, or ‘two-spirit’ (the latter in the case of Indigenous peoples). It is important to note that the terms “non-binary” and “gender nonconforming” are not synonymous. Non-binary can refer to how one identifies their gender, or how one expresses it, “existing outside of the idea that of men and women being the only gender identities”.[4] On the other hand, gender non-conforming is more about how one expresses that identity. Gender non-conforming could apply to a non-binary person, but gender non-conforming could also apply to a cisgender man who wants to wear a dress or wear make-up, or a womxn who wants to wear a men’s suit.[4]

However, many people's gender identities fall into the categories of the conventional gender binary. The gender binary can be understood as a system that constructs gender according to two discrete and exclusive categories: boy/man/male and girl/womxn/female.[5] The conflation of sex and gender may seem unquestionable to people whose sex does correspond to and define their gender identity. However, there are impacts of this binary both on individuals who fit inside and outside this norm. The gender binary can be harmful because it produces universalizing notions of masculinity and femininity and associated gender roles, expressions, and expectations that can be false for many people. Reinforcing the notion of a gender binary has disproportionate social and economic repercussions for womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender non-conforming people such as reduced job stability, food insecurity, a lack of support by familial groups, and lack of access to appropriate health services due to harassment, discrimination, and microaggressions.[6] Other groups may face social consequences for acting outside of norms such as cis-gender men displaying empathy or expressing sadness, which are normatively categorized as feminine behaviours.[7] The gender binary has a hand in oppression, discrimination, and biases that often are the undercurrents of social justice issues in our society.

Why does gender matter in the food system?

Since food relates closely to social and cultural structures, it is no surprise that gender is entrenched in a diverse set of experiences in the food system. As Koch[8] and Twiss[9] have explored, the relationship between gender and food can be observed throughout the anthropological record in communities that divided the labour of food collection versus preparation between men and women. In these communities, men assumed the role of hunters and women took on the roles of foragers and cooks, yet these societies were still considered to be egalitarian with all members having power in the politics of the tribe.[10] As societies began to shift to production models of securing food, women became the first agriculturalists who grew sufficient food supply to feed a majority of the tribe, with hunting being merely supplementary. This was still a labour-intensive activity that included conducting the sacred rituals, raking/hoeing of soil, sowing, weeding, observing the plants for harvest, harvesting, processing and cooking the harvest, preserving, and seed-saving. With the introduction of the industrial agri-food system, labour exploitation and gender disparity became more pronounced as intensified production and consolidation shifted power to dominant groups in society such as white landholder men.[8]

The industrial food system, with its emphasis on agricultural intensification, has paradoxically created conditions for widespread food insecurity in the global North and South. While a privileged fraction of the population has access to more variety and quantity of food than in any century before, a large portion of the population struggles to meet their nutritional requirements. In this system, marginalization is experienced disproportionately by womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender nonconforming people. This marginalization can result in increasing vulnerability to poverty and food insecurity further compounded by an individual's race, indigeneity, socioeconomic status, and other social identifiers.[11][12][13]

According to a 2019 report by Oxfam, Gender Inequalities and Food Insecurity, women are “vulnerable on all dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability”.[14] In households with children in Canada, the prevalence of severe food insecurity was 6 times greater in households led by female lone parents (25%) than households led by couples (7%).[15] This is not to say that single parent households are not able to provide the same quality of life; these statistics point to the barriers that single parents may face regarding access to food and sufficient incomes to provide safe, nutritious and culturally appropriate food for their children. Additionally, as male-headed households have lower rates of food insecurity, this signals systemic differences along gender lines.[15] Furthermore, women who participate in the Temporary Foreign Workers Program (TFWP) “experience many challenges related to their sex and traditional gender roles and expectations embedded in both Canadian and home country policies and recruitment processes”, including gender differences in remittances, the mental and emotional burden of family separation, and precarious work conditions.[16] Currently, there is no census data on food insecurity by gender in Canada.

However, marginalized groups are not without agency. As Activity 4 of the module explores, there is a multiplicity of grassroots resistance efforts working towards equity in the food system. At the judicial level, there are protections; in Canada, for example, citizens of all social identities are enshrined into its constitution. Gender-Based Analysis Plus has been used since 1995 in Canada as a key policy framework to operationalize social equality efforts across the public domain.[17] To learn more about how GBA+ and its contributions to the advancement of gender equity, read this backgrounder by Status of Women Canada.

The linkage between food and gender extends beyond the material (labour) realm and into the corporeal and sociocultural realms as introduced in the Allen & Sachs reading. The reading offers an analysis of how gendered roles relate to power, oppression, and inequities in the food system. Systems of oppression such as patriarchy also seek domination through pressures on how bodies and roles should be performed in domestic spheres.[18] For example, the heterosexual nuclear family unit is often a normative conception of “family”, but some heterosexual households may still lie outside of this normative social structure, such as households run by single mothers or households with multi-family supports.[19] Single parent mothering is a strong predictor of food insecurity, especially for households headed by Indigenous women and women of colour, which is linked to sociocultural expectations of women’s participation in both paid and unpaid labour. There is a strong link between family structure and food insecurity.[20][21]

Food insecurity is a manifestation of structural inequities disproportionately experienced by womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender non-conforming people.[12] As such, it is imperative to deconstruct the conflation of sex and gender, as well as the gender binary, so that specific interventions and efforts can be tailored to address these inequities based on gender and sexual orientation.

Key Terms

Facilitator Note: These include a selection of terms that are important for learners to define themselves. It may be helpful to collectively discuss what these words mean, rather than assuming pre-knowledge. Definitions are provided, but we encourage facilitators to collectively define key terms with the group as a way to build foundational knowledge for delving deeper. The glossary is a starting point. It should not be considered complete as these definitions offered are subject to change as language is always evolving and these definitions should not be presumed to be universal.

This glossary is provided to help give others a more thorough but not entirely comprehensive understanding of the significance of these terms. You may even consider asking someone what they mean when they use a term, especially when they use it to describe their identity. Ultimately it is most important that each individual define themselves for themselves and therefore also define a term for themselves. We invite you to apply and adapt these definitions in your own specific context.

(Please see Glossary of Terms at the Additional Resources section below for other resources and interpretations of gender language.)

  • Feminism: There are some contestations over the definition of feminism. However, principal understandings are that feminism refers to “political, cultural, and economic movements that aim to establish equal rights and legal protections for women”.[22] Other descriptions extend the definition to include movements that seek equal rights and protections for all people.[23] Feminist movements have mobilized around issues including but not limited to property rights, voting rights, affordable healthcare, historic exclusion of Indigenous womxn and womxn of colour from feminist actions, and inequalities experienced by womxn in the private and public spheres.[22][24][25] Contemporary feminism is characterized by the employment of diverse feminist theories as well as by the breadth of social issues focused on, such as the mass proliferation and acceptance of neoliberalism and global capitalism which create policy barriers preventing gender equity.[22][26] Also characteristic of contemporary feminism is the application of an intersectional lens that is inclusive of race, sexuality, class, and other social categories to womxn’s issues around the world.[22]
  • Food security: Food security is considered a basic human right by the United Nations—it is fulfilled when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences.[27]
  • Gender: Refers to characteristics such as “attitudes, feelings and behaviors that a society or culture” delineates as normative (eg. masculine, feminine) or non-binary (eg. gender non-conforming or two-spirited).[28]
  • Gender binary: A system that constructs gender according to two discrete and opposite categories: boy/man and girl/womxn. It is important to recognize that both cisgender and transgender people can have a gender identity that is binary.[5]
  • Gender normativity: Expectations of behaviour and gender expression that are based on notions of heterosexuality and the gender binary.[28]
  • Heteronormativity: “A cultural and societal bias, often unconscious, that privileges heterosexuality, and ignores or underrepresents diversity in attraction and behaviour by assuming all people are heterosexual by default.”[29]
  • Oppression: “A pervasive system of supremacy and discrimination that perpetuates itself through differential treatment, ideological domination, and institutional control. Oppression depends on a socially constructed binary of a dominant group (though not necessarily more populous) as being normal, natural, superior, and required over the ‘other’. This binary benefits said group, who historically have greater access to power and the ability to influence the process of planetary change and evolution.”[30] In the context of gender relations, this binary benefits cisgender men. Forms of gendered oppression in the food system:
    • Corporeal Oppression: oppression based on gendered expectations of bodies and consumptive patterns.[31]
    • Sociocultural Oppression: oppression based on societal expectations and assumed gender roles regarding food in the private or domestic sphere.[31]
    • Material Oppression: oppression based upon gendered expectations within the formal and informal labour market.[31]
  • Patriarchy: A system in which social structures are organized around the power of men, with womxn being seen as dependent and subordinate to men. This type of system is reinforced by the gender binary that justifies the dominant positions of men as being a result of inherent ‘gender differences’ as opposed to a constructed form of social organization. From a feminist perspective, patriarchy is considered the root of oppression for womxn.[32]
  • Queer: A term that describes someone who does not subscribe to the traditional gender binary, but rather a gender identity that is free-flowing and flexible. While historically used as a derogatory term for difference, it is now "used by some in LGBTQ communities as a symbol of pride and affirmation of diversity”.[29] This term makes space for the expression of a variety of identities outside of rigid categories associated with sex, gender or attraction.[29]
  • Queer theory: While “queer theory itself resists definition”, this theoretical lens critiques identities as performative, normalized through the repetition of certain actions, as opposed to being natural.[33] This lens also encourages nonconformity with normative or dominant social identities.[34]
  • LGBTQIA2+: An abbreviation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual and Two-spirit.[35] An umbrella term that is commonly used is LGBT, however, the abbreviation has continued to expand in gender and sexuality discourse to establish inclusivity and representation for various communities.[36][37]
  • Sex: Refers to socially constructed characteristics based upon “biological differences [such as] chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and external sex organs”.[3]
  • Sexual Orientation: Describes a person’s attraction (or lack thereof) to others based on physicality, emotionality, and gender identities. Sexual orientations include homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, asexual, pansexual, questioning, and more.[1]
  • Transgender: A person who does not fully identify with the gender associated with the sex assigned to them at birth.[29]
  • Trans: A term often “used as an umbrella term to represent a wide range of gender identities and expressions”, including transgender, transsexual and more.[29] A diversity of terms is important when discussing trans identities to reflect the variation in lived experiences and individuals who identify as trans.
  • Two-spirit: An English umbrella term used by some Indigenous peoples to describe a person who identifies with the “fluid and diverse nature of gender and attraction and its interconnectedness to spirituality”.[29] The term reflects complex Indigenous understandings of gender roles, spirituality, and the long history of sexual and gender diversity in Indigenous cultures.[38] The creation of the term “two-spirit” is attributed to Albert McLeod, who proposed its use during the Third Annual Inter-tribal Native American, First Nations, Gay and Lesbian American Conference, held in Winnipeg in 1990.[39] The term is a translation of the Anishinaabemowin term niizh manidoowag, two spirits. Two-spirit people may also use terms from their own Indigenous language.
  • Unpaid labour: Refers to “the production of goods or services that are consumed by those within or outside a household, but not for sale in the market. An activity is considered ‘work’ (vs. ‘leisure’) if a third person could be paid to do a certain activity”.[40]
  • Womxn: A term used in gender discourse that is inclusive of “all woman-identified individuals, regardless of assigned sex at birth”.[41] Similar to the term ‘womyn’, it emerged as a way to assert that women as people and ‘women’ as a term should not be defined in relation to men. The spelling of this term using the ‘x’ emerged in response to the “history of exclusion [of trans womxn and gender non-conforming people] in many second wave feminist organizations” in which membership was based upon normative notions of femininity.[41] Learn more about the use of these terms.

Activity Outline

Facilitator Note: These activities are provided as guidance for instructors and facilitators to mix and match as they seek to fulfil the learning outcomes. Times given are an estimate and facilitators should use their best judgement of when to move things along and when to tease out certain topics based on their own learning goals.

Activity Estimated Time Associated Learning Outcomes Activity Notes
Pre-Activity: Group Guidelines 30 min Define your role as facilitator and clarify the group’s expectations of you and each other, as well as foster a safe, respectful, and effective learning environment for participants
Activity 1: Reading Discussion 30 min 1. Define gender normativity and gender performativity to explore how this impacts your relationship with food.

2. Analyze and distinguish the ways in which the gender binary and relations in food reproduce food insecurity and inequities in the corporeal, sociocultural, and material domains of the food system.

3. Examine how womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender nonconforming people engage in resistance efforts, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of existing solutions and strategies to mobilize food system change.

Assign pre-class readings based on the learning outcomes and offer prompts to encourage in-class discussions. Conduct an in-class discussion to debrief the reading and background material.

Note: The Allen and Sachs (2012) reading for Learning Outcome 2 is required for this module.

Activity 2: Food in Your Life 35 min 1. Define gender normativity and gender performativity to explore how this impacts your relationship with food. Encourage students to reflect on their positionality and lived experiences in the context of gendered roles in the food system.
Activity 3: Food in the Media 45 min 2. Analyze and distinguish the ways in which the gender binary and relations in food reproduce food insecurity and inequities in the corporeal, sociocultural, and material domains of the food system. Examine structural influences—in particular, the media—on gendering in the food system.
Activity 4: Power Mapping 45-70 min 2. Analyze and distinguish the ways in which the gender binary and relations in food reproduce food insecurity and inequities in the corporeal, sociocultural, and material domains of the food system. Map out actors, institutions and structures implicated in gender-based oppression in the food system.
Activity 5: Paths towards Gender Equity 45 min 3. Examine how womxn, trans, queer, non-binary and gender nonconforming people engage in resistance efforts, thereby gaining a deeper understanding of existing solutions and strategies to mobilize food system change. Examine and compare tactics and strategies used to create paradigm shifts and push for change in the food system.

Additional Resources

The following resources fit outside the scope of this module or the limited number of assigned readings attached to the learning outcomes. They expand on critiques and background information and suggested guidelines under the themes of gender and food justice in order to provide learners with a more well-rounded understanding of contemporary issues and resistances.

Glossary of Terms

  • Egales Canada Human Rights Trust. (n.d.). Glossary of Terms. Egales Canada Human Rights Trust. Retrieved from https://egale.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Egales-Glossary-of-Terms.pdf
  • Include Gender. (2016). Gender Glossary. Include Gender. Retrieved from https://www.includegender.org/facts/a-small-glossary/

Supplementary readings

  • Lemke, S., & Delormier, T. (2017). Indigenous Peoples' food systems, nutrition, and gender: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 13. doi:10.1111/mcn.12499
  • Hall, K. Q. (2014). Toward a Queer Crip Feminist Politics of Food. PhiloSOPHIA, 4(2), 177–196. doi: 10.1353/phi.2014.0011
  • Dickinson, M. (2016). “Women, Welfare, and Food Insecurity.” Women Redefining the Experience of Food Insecurity: Life Off the Edge of the Table, edited by Janet Page-Reeves, Lexington Books, 2014, pp. 65–80.
  • Hayes-Conroy, A., & Hayes-Conroy, J. (2013). “Chapter 9: Feminist Nutrition: Difference, Decolonization, and Dietary Change.” Doing Nutrition Differently: Critical Approaches to Diet and Dietary Intervention, Ashgate Publishing, pp. 173–188.
  • Ivers, L. C., & Cullen, K. A. (2011). Food insecurity: special considerations for women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(6). doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.012617

Podcast

  • Cairns, K. (Janmohamed, Z., Ho, S.). (2016, June 29). E5: Food & Femininity (with Dr. Kate Cairns) [The Racist Sandwich]. http://www.racistsandwich.com/episodes/2016/6/29/e5-food-femininity-with-dr-kate-cairns

Information on Gender-Based Analysis + (GBA+)

  • Status of Women Canada. (2018, December 04). What is GBA+? Retrieved from https://cfc-swc.gc.ca/gba-acs/index-en.html
  • City of Edmonton. (2018, April 12). Gender-Based Analysis + : What is it and Why? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6w-d1mmjFU

Resources for learners

  • Kapitan, A. (2017). The Radical Copyeditor’s Style Guide For Writing About Transgender People. Radical Copyeditor. Retrieved from https://radicalcopyeditor.com/2017/08/31/transgender-style-guide/
  • Central Toronto Youth Services. (2016). Families in Transition: A Resource Guide for Families of Transgender Youth. Central Toronto Youth Services. Retrieved from https://ctys.org/wp-content/uploads/CTYS-FIT-Families-in-Transition-Guide-2nd-edition.pdf
  • Trans Care BC. (2020). Care & Support. Provincial Health Services Authority. Retrieved from http://www.phsa.ca/transcarebc/care-support

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Sex, Gender & Sexuality Explained". Western Australian Aids Council.
  2. ↑ "Indigenous Concepts of Gender." University of Alberta.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "The difference between gender, sex and sexuality". ReachOut Australia.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Garvin, Patrick (2019). "What's the difference between "genderqueer," "gender non-conforming," and "non-binary"?". The LGBTQ+ Experiment.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "The Language of Gender". gender spectrum.
  6. ↑ Kuper, Laura E.; Nussbaum, Robin; Mustanski, Brian (2012). "Exploring the diversity of gender and sexual orientation identities in an online sample of transgender individuals". J Sex Res. 49 (2–3): 244–254. doi:10.1080/00224499.2011.596954.
  7. ↑ Mayer, David M. (2018). "How men get penalized for straying from masculine norms". Harvard Business Review.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Koch, Shelley L. (2019). "Chapter 2: Growing". Gender and Food: A Critical Look at the Food System. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 17–40.
  9. ↑ Twiss, Katheryn (2012). "The Archaeology of Food and Social Diversity". Journal of Archaeological Research. 20: 357–395. doi:10.1007/s10814-012-9058-5.
  10. ↑ Crowther, Gillian (2018). Eating culture: An Anthropological Guide to Food. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781487593292.
  11. ↑ Henderson, Emmett R.; Jabson, Jennifer; Russomanno, Jennifer; Paglisotti, Taylor; Blosnich, John R. (2019). "Housing and food stress among transgender adults in the United States". Annals of Epidemiology. 38: 42–47. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.08.004.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Russomanno, Jennifer; Jabson Tree, Jennifer M. (2020). "Food insecurity and food pantry use among transgender and gender non-conforming people in the Southeast United States". BMC Public Health. 20. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08684-8.
  13. ↑ Ivers, Louise C.; Cullen, Kimberly A. (2011). "Food insecurity: special considerations for women". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 94 (6): 1740S–1744S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.012617.
  14. ↑ "Gender Inequalities and Food Insecurity." Oxfam. 2019.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Household food insecurity in Canada, 2017/2018 [Infographic]." Statistics Canada. 2020.
  16. ↑ White, Judy (2016). Canada’s Temporary Foreign Worker Program & Women Migrant Workers in Canada’s North (PDF). Ottawa: Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women, FemNorthNet Project.
  17. ↑ "What is GBA+?". Status of Women Canada. 2018.
  18. ↑ Forson, Psyche Williams; Counihan, Carole (2011). "Women and food chains: The gendered politics of food. Taking food public: Redefining foodways in a changing world". Taking Food Public: Redefining Foodways in a Changing World. Routledge. pp. 23–40. ISBN 9780415888554.
  19. ↑ Cohen, Cathy J. (1997). "Punks, Bulldaggers, and Welfare Queens: The Radical Potential of Queer Politics?". A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 3 (4): 437–465. doi:10.1215/10642684-3-4-437.
  20. ↑ McIntyre, Lynn; Glanville, N. Theresa; Officer, Suzanne; Anderson, Bonnie; Raine, Kim D.; Dayle, Jutta B. (2002). "Food Insecurity of Low-income Lone Mothers and Their Children in Atlantic Canada". Canadian Journal of Public Health. 93: 411–415. doi:10.1007/bf03405027.
  21. ↑ Tarasuk, Valerie; St-Germain, Andrée-Anne Fafard; Mitchell, Andrew (2019). "Geographic and socio-demographic predictors of household food insecurity in Canada, 2011–12". BMC Public Health. 19 (12). doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6344-2.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Drucker, Sally Ann (2018). "Betty Friedan: The Three Waves of Feminism". Ohio Humanities.
  23. ↑ "What Is Feminism?". International Women's Development Agency.
  24. ↑ Cunningham, Myrna (2006). "Indigenous Women's Visions of an Inclusive Feminism". Development. 49: 55–59. doi:10.1057/palgrave.development.1100227.
  25. ↑ "Sojourner Truth". National Park Service. 2017.
  26. ↑ Calhoun, Craig (2002). "Feminism". Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199891184.
  27. ↑ The State of Food and Agriculture (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2009. ISBN 978-92-5-106215-9.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Definitions Related to Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity." (2015). American Psychological Association.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 "Glossary of Terms". Egale Canada Human Rights Trust.
  30. ↑ "Terminologies of Oppression". The Anti-Oppression Network.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Allen, Patricia; Sachs, Carolyn (2007). "Women and Food Chains: The Gendered Politics of Food" (PDF). International Journal of Sociology of Food and Agriculture. 12 (1). ISSN 0798-1759.
  32. ↑ Jovanovski, Natalie (2017). "A Smörgåsbord of Food Femininities: How Gender Politics and Food Culture Combine". Digesting Femininities: 47–58. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58925-1_3.
  33. ↑ Taylor, Jodie (2013). "Claiming Queer Territory in the Study of Subcultures and Popular Music". Sociology Compass. 7 (3): 194–207. doi:10.1111/soc4.12021.
  34. ↑ Verma, Tara; Chapman-Orr, Eli; Davis, Antonix. "Queer Theory". Grinnell College.
  35. ↑ "The Health of LGBTQIA2 Communities in Canada: Report of the Standing Committee on Health". House of Commons. 2019.
  36. ↑ "LGBTQIA Resource Center Glossary". UC Davis LGBTQIA Resource Center. 2020.
  37. ↑ "Queer Terminology—from A to Q". Qmunity: BC's Queer Resource Centre. 2013.
  38. ↑ "Two-Spirit". Trans Care BC.
  39. ↑ "Two-Spirit Community". Re:searching for LGBTQ Health. 2020.
  40. ↑ Shelton, Beth Anne. "Gender and Unpaid Work". Handbook of the Sociology of Gender: 375–390.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Defining of Womxn of Color". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
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