Girls and Women in STEM

From UBC Wiki

Women’s educational attainment has significantly increased within the past few decades, yet their underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) disciplines continues to persist[1]. This observed disparity has raised concerns, leading researchers to examine why women are choosing not to pursue STEM-related degrees and occupations [2]. Identifying the possible factors contributing to this gender gap enables policy makers and educators to implement interventions that encourage and sustain the engagement of girls and women in STEM [1] [2] [3].

Gender Disparities in STEM Fields

The gender gap in educational attainment has been reversed in recent decades, with near gender parity in early school years and women outnumbering men in postsecondary[4] [3]. According to the U.S. Department of Education, a higher percentage of girls take Algebra 1 at a younger grade level and pass the course at a greater rate than their male counterparts. Additional data reveal that girls are equally represented in high school science courses (i.e., biology and chemistry), with the exception of physics, and math courses (i.e., geometry, Algebra II, calculus). Girls were also found to outnumber their male peers in enrolment in numerous AP subjects, aside from AP mathematics. In addition to outnumbering men in postsecondary enrolment, women are generally more likely to earn an associate’s (62 percent), bachelor’s (57.4 percent), master’s (62.6 percent), and doctorate (53.3 percent) degree [4].

Gender Segregation in College Majors

Despite equal high school preparation and achievements across various disciplines, women remain greatly underrepresented in STEM fields, especially in engineering [4]. A 2007 survey of American college freshmen conducted by Higher Educational Research Institute reveal that only 15 percent of first-year female students intend on declaring a STEM major in contrast to the 29 percent of male freshmen [5]. The gender disparity in intended majors is parallel to enrolment in STEM programs and attainment of STEM undergraduate degrees. Merely 31 percent of STEM certificates and degrees were awarded to women between 2008 and 2009 with only 23.9 percent of female students enrolled in STEM programs between 2009 and 2010 [4].

Representation of Women in the Workplace

The underrepresentation of women in STEM disciplines extends beyond academia and into the workplace following graduation [6]. Women with STEM undergraduate degrees have a lower likelihood of being employed in their field than their male counterparts [4]. According to the American Community Survey conducted by the Census Bureau, “women account for nearly half of employed college graduates age 25 and over, but only about 25 percent of employed STEM degree holders and an even smaller share – just about 20 percent – of STEM degree holders working in STEM jobs” [1]. This trend of women comprising merely a fourth of the STEM workforce has persisted since 1994 as illustrated by Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey [1].

The greatest disparities can be found within engineering and computer science, fields that encompass over 80 percent of all employment in the STEM workforce [7]. Data from the American Community Survey reveal that only one in seven engineers are woman. Women with a STEM degree are twice as likely to go into healthcare or education post-graduation, comprising of about one in every five healthcare workers and 14 percent of education occupations. Overall, men have a greater likelihood of attaining a job across all STEM fields without higher education [1].

Gender Wage Gap

In Behind the Gap by the American Association of University of Women (AAUW), it was reported that women working full-time all year round earned 78 percent of what their male counterpart were paid in 2013. This pay gap exists nearly across all occupational fields, from traditionally “female” careers (e.g., education, humanities) to predominantly “male” fields (e.g., computer science). Though women with non-traditional occupations receive higher wages than those with traditionally “female” jobs, the pay gap continues to exist [8]. Data from the American Community Survey reveal that “on average, men and women earn $36.34 and $31.11 per hour, respectively, in STEM jobs – higher than the $24.47 that men earn and $19.26 that women ear, on average, in other occupations” [1]. Being a computer and information systems manager, a high-paying STEM occupation, earned women about $86,000 while their male counterparts made more than $98,000 in 2011 [9]. As illustrated, the wage gap shrinks for women in STEM fields but is not entirely eliminated [1][8]. It is important to note that women of color are significantly more affected by the pay gap across all occupations. Asian American women have the smallest pay gap, earning 90 percent of a white man’s salary, whereas Hispanic women have the largest gap, earning merely 54 percent [8].

Explanations for Female Underrepresentation in STEM

Gender Stereotypes

A stereotype is defined as “an often unfair and untrue belief that many people have about all people or things with a particular characteristics” by Merriam-Webster Dictionary [10]. Gender stereotypes can therefore be defined as the association between over-generalized gender attributes (e.g, STEM) and a group concept (e.g., women) [11]. As stereotypes concerning women in science and math are prevalent in society, researchers explored the effects of such gender stereotypes on women to provide explanations for female underrepresentation in STEM disciplines [11] [12] [13]. Previous research suggests that gender-STEM stereotypes negatively affect girls and women by distorting their “self-perceptions of ability, performance and interest in pursuing a career in counter-stereotypic (masculine) disciplines” [11].

An array of existing literature particularly demonstrates the existence of a math—gender relationship responsible for influencing women’s math perceptions, participation, and preferences [12]. Research on the pervasiveness of gender stereotyping illustrate that there is a tendency for women to associate math with male [12][13]. A 2002 study by Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald involving college students reveal that the group one belongs to (i.e., being female or male), group identity (i.e., self = female or male), and the internalization of gender stereotypes determine math self-concept and attitudes. Women who held stronger math = male stereotypes while identifying as female exhibited more negative math attitudes and weaker identification with math [12]. This interaction between group identity, math-gender stereotype, and math self-concept can be observed among young children as well, demonstrating how gender stereotypes shape emerging math identity years before any disparities in math achievement are detected [13].

Lack of Interest

Another common explanation for the significant gender discrepancy in STEM fields is that girls have less interest in science and engineering than their male peers. Children were found to express differing interests in careers and activities during early adolescence, with boys having more interest in math and science occupations than girls [14]. Previous research indicates that interest is a significant predictor of “educational choices, degree completion, occupational choices both within and outside of the STEM areas, and job satisfaction” [15]. Women often reason that their resignation from a STEM job is either due to a lack of interest in the field or a growing interest for non-STEM fields [15].

A 2009 study by Su, Rounds, and Armstrong examined sex differences in vocational interests through a meta-analysis of existing literature and data from a myriad of interest inventories. Using Holland Codes (RIASEC—Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional), women were identified as being more Artistic and Conventional while men displayed stronger Realistic and Investigative interests [15]. When math, science, and engineering were specifically assessed, men showed greater interest in these categories than women [15]. This study demonstrates how interest is a central determinant of gendered occupational choices, thereby accounting for the underrepresentation of women in STEM [15].

Strategies to Promote Female STEM Participation and Achievement

As supported by empirical research, “children’s beliefs about their abilities are central to determining their interest and performance in different subjects, the classes they choose to take, the after-school activities they pursue, and, ultimately, the career choices they make” [16]. This implies that promoting girls’ confidence about their abilities has the potential to alter their choices and increase participation in STEM fields [16]. A strategy to improve STEM interest and self-concept of girls and women include fostering a school environment (e.g., elementary and secondary) that reduces gender stereotypes. A 2014 study by Legewie and DiPrete suggests that modifying the academic curriculum to better expose girls to knowledge about STEM disciplines can weaken gender stereotypes. Providing intensive math and science curricula, as well as reducing the gender segregation of extracurricular activities, has also been shown to significantly affect girls’ attitudes toward STEM [17].

Teachers, in particular, play an essential role in encouraging girls to pursue occupations in math- and science-related disciplines [16][17]. Various strategies can be implemented to guide girls into developing a positive STEM self-concept, such as teaching students the malleability of intelligence. Girls who believe that cognitive abilities can be enhanced through repeated practice and hard work are more likely to persist through challenges. Another recommended strategy for teachers involves providing informative feedback that is specific to the student’s performance or achievement. Doing so enables students to actively address their errors, rather than attributing mistakes to their lack of ability. This helps promote learning in girls and strengthens their sense of efficacy in certain domains such as math and science. Girls’ interest in STEM-related domains can be greater encouraged by cultivating a classroom environment filled with engaging math- and science-related content. Once curiosity in a particular area is sparked, teachers can stimulate that interest by providing opportunities for further interaction with interesting activities to widen their understanding and create associations with future ambitions [16].



References:

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, 2011 http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/womeninstemagaptoinnovation8311.pdf
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 U.S. Department of Education, 2007 http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/practice_guides/20072003.pdf
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Legewie, J., & DiPrete, T. A. (2014). The high school environment and the gender gap in science and engineering. Sociology of Education, 87(4), 259-280. doi:10.1177/0038040714547770
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 U.S. Department of Education, 2012 http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/gender-equity-in-education.pdf
  5. ↑ Higher Education Research Institute. (2007). Survey of the American freshman: Special tabulations. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, cited in St. Rose, A. (2010). STEM major choice and the gender pay gap. On Campus with Women, 39(1) http://archive.aacu.org/ocww/volume39_1/feature.cfm?section=1
  6. ↑ St. Rose, A. (2010). STEM major choice and the gender pay gap. On Campus with Women, 39(1) http://archive.aacu.org/ocww/volume39_1/feature.cfm?section=1
  7. ↑ U.S. Census Bureau, 2013 http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-24.pdf
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 American Association of University of Women. (2015). The Simple Truth About the Gender Pay Gap. Retrieved from http://www.aauw.org/files/2015/02/The-Simple-Truth_Spring-2015.pdf
  9. ↑ American Association of University of Women. (2013). Three Reasons the Wage Gap Hurts Women in STEM. Retrieved http://www.aauw.org/2013/04/05/three-reasons-the-wage-gap-hurts-women-in-stem/
  10. ↑ Merriam-Webster Dictionary http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stereotype
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Smeding, A. (2012). Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): An investigation of their implicit gender stereotypes and stereotypes’ connectedness to math performance. Sex Roles, 67(11), 617-629. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0209-4
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 44-59. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.44
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Math–Gender stereotypes in elementary school children. Child Development, 82(3), 766-779. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01529.x
  14. ↑ Turner, S. L., Conkel, J. L., Starkey, M., Landgraf, R., Lapan, R. T., Siewert, J. J., . . . Huang, J. (2008). Gender differences in holland vocational personality types: Implications for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 11(5), 317-326. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-11.317
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Su, R., Rounds, J., & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135(6), 859-884. doi:10.1037/a0017364
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 U.S. Department of Education. (2007). Encouraging Girls in Math and Science: IES Practice Guide. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/practice_guides/20072003.pdf
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Legewie, J., & DiPrete, T. A. (2014). The high school environment and the gender gap in science and engineering. Sociology of Education, 87(4), 259-280. doi:10.1177/0038040714547770
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Girls_and_Women_in_STEM&oldid=350061"