Female Athletes in Contact Sports

From UBC Wiki

Overview

Female athletes participating in contact sports such as soccer, football, rugby, and basketball enter into a traditionally male sphere, where typical male behaviours of "aggression, violence, and risk-taking" are prevalent through physical contact such as jostling, checking, and roughing. In particular, females who participate in team contact sports face gender discrimination on and off the court. Although women are participating in recreational and leisure activity, there remains a minority of female athletes that participate in contact sports.

Influence of Gender

Gender refers to the "social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female" while gender identity refers to the "extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine" [1]. Gender and gender identities are the byproducts of a social and cultural environment where peers, parents, and the media play an integral role in shaping an individual's conceptions of masculine and feminine identities.

Since the inception of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which led to an increase of over "600% for the number of girls participating in high school sports" [2]. A 2013 Statistics Canada Survey found only 4% of Canadian females participated in hockey, compared to 23% of Canadian males[3]. However, although the inception of Title IX has led to an increase in female sports participation, there are still gendered areas of sports where males and females are directed to hypermasculine and hyperfeminine sports. Males will participate in traditionally masculine spheres that emphasize active movement and aggression or violence, such as wrestling, fighting, and contact sports, while females will tend to participate in non-aggressive or passive forms of sports such as figure skating, badminton, tennis, or gymnastics. The common theme between male and female identities in sports is that there is an emphasis on active and passive forms of participation. Females in particular who participate in passive sports such as gymnastics or synchronized swimming face higher levels of body dissatisfaction due to an overwhelming emphasis on subjective looks[4]

In terms of contact sports, females participate in the dual spheres of masculine and feminine identities. Female athletes must be aggressive and masculine in order to succeed and win, but at the same time maintain their femininity. Thus, while their on-court behaviours resemble hyper-masculine behaviours. As women participate in intense and vigorous forms of sports, society then percieves them as "crossing and threatening the barriers into what was considered masculine behaviour"[5]. Although females continue to participate in sports,they tend to avoid masculine activities that are dominated by males in an effort to "escape being undermined by educators, such as parents, coaches, and teachers, or avoid being stigmatized or sexually harassed by their peers"[6]Females must adhere to rigid forms of deportment, appearance, and behaviour in order to conform to societal standards of beauty and gender identity. Thus, society emphasises notions of hyper-sexualized femininity through social spheres such as sport.

The Media Spectacle

For more information on Media Stereotypes and Women, please see Daniel Koo's article on Gender Stereotypes in the Media

Images found in modern society create an emphasis on hypersexualized femininity under a hegemonic masculinity. Highly sexualized media images of women in society create an unrealistic standard of commercialized beauty which creates further body dissatisfaction amongst women.There are two main spectacles created by the media referred to as the spectacle of accumulation and the spectacle of legitimization[7].

Spectacle of Accumulation
The Spectacle of Accumulation refers to the use of spectacular or graphic images or videos for the sole purpose of accruing revenue. For instance, the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue features scantily clad female athletes in provocative positions, which further emphasizes the objectified and subordinated nature of the female body[8]. An example of this objectification would be UFC fighter Ronda Rousey's participation in the 2016 swimsuit issue, where she wore an animal body paint[9] The spectacle of accumulation occurs when the media creates or emphasizes the physical body through a male gaze. Thus, sporting events such as the Legends Football League (formerly Lingerie Football League)
perpetuate the sexualized notion of femininity by deemphasizing the physical aspect of football through the presentation of revealing the female bodies. Unlike professional football, the LFL provides its players with a chest and shoulder pads and a face mask while the rest of their attire is just a set of bra and panties.

Spectacle of Legitimization
The Spectacle of Legitimization refers to how the media "legitmizes gender and racial stereotypes through commenting, presentation, and coverage" [10].Females athletes in the media are commonly and routinely "trivialized, patronized, and sexualized"[11]The spectacle of legitimation is more evident during international sporting events such as the Olympics, where "events with subjective assessment appear to contain more gender biases than sports with objective assessments (such as speed and distance)"[12] A major problem with the media is that there is a disproportionate amount of coverage towards male athletes and their respective sports. The media purposefully underrepresents women in sports which causes a lack of attention. Furthermore, women's sporting organizations lack the "funding and the infrastructure necessary to support them in being more proactive in reaching out to and informing journalists who want to report on their events" [13]

Feminine Apologetic

The Feminine Apologetic refers to notion of "overcompensation amongst female athletes for their masculine behaviour on the field by acting in traditionally feminine ways off the field in order to avoid being labeled as butch or lesbian"[14]. The purpose of emphasizing femininity is used as a form of submission and adherence to hegemonic masculine values in society because it "reinforces females' inferior status to males' by highlighting typical feminine traits (such as frailty and docility) that ensures they remain desirable to men"[15] For instance, in his book, Race in Play: Understanding the Socio-cultural Worlds of Student Athletes, Carl E. James notes in an interview with a WNBA player named Alciia who explains her navigation of her gendered identity when she states:

You have to be able to separate on the court stuff and off the court stuff...On the court you are a basketball player [while] off the court I try to carry myself as a woman...Once we step off the court we like to dress up and go out...I like to put on my jeans and my heels when I can...So when you see all these guys, especially athletes..it really is just so much easier just to throw on a t-shirt, sweats, and running shoes and just go.[16]

Here, Alicia demonstrates a gendered division between male and female athletes, where males can simply maintain their masculine identity. However, for female athletes like Alicia, a switch back to their original feminine identities must occur once they are off the court. Typical feminine behaviours include "looking femiine by wearing sexy clothing, minimizing muscular development and moving in feminie ways"[17]Specifically, female athletes participating in male-oriented contact sports such as basketball, football, and rugby must contend with the constant reminder that they are entering into a hegemonic masculinity, and therefore must "guard" their sexual and gender identities through heteronormative behaviour.

References

  1. ↑ Little, W. (2013). “Chapter 12: Gender, Sex, and Sexuality.” Introduction to Sociology (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter12-gender-sex-and-sexuality/
  2. ↑ Kaestner, R., & Xu, X. (2010). Title IX, Girls’ Sports Participation, and Adult Female Physical Activity and Weight. Evaluation Review, 34(1), 52-78. Retrieved from http://erx.sagepub.com.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/content/34/1/52.full.pdf+html
  3. ↑ Statistics Canada (2013). Sport Participation 2010[Catalogue Number CH24-1-2012]. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf
  4. ↑ Billings, A.C. (2007). From Diving Boards to Pole Vaults: Gendered Athlete Portrayals in the "Big Four" Sports at the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics, Southern Communication Journal, 72(4), 329-344.
  5. ↑ Fields, S. (2005). The History of American Women in Sport, Society, and Law. Female Gladiators: Gender, Law, and Contact Sport in America (pp1-16). Chicago, Il: University of Illinois Press.
  6. ↑ James, C.E. James, C. E. (2005). Race in Play: Understanding the Socio-Cultural Worlds of Student Athletes. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. p.112
  7. ↑ Wilson, Brian (2007). Oppression is the message: Media, sport, spectacle, and gender. In K. Young & P. White (Ed.), Sport And Gender in Canada (2nd ed.) (pp.212-234). Canada: Oxford University Press.
  8. ↑ Sports Illustrated. (2016). “2016 Swimsuit Collection.” Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from http://www.si.com/swimsuit/collection/2016#athletes
  9. ↑ Sports Illustrated. (2016). “Ronda Rousey Swimsuit Body Paint.” Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from http://www.si.com/swimsuit/model/ronda-rousey/2016/body-paint#1
  10. ↑ Wilson, Brian (2007). Oppression is the message: Media, sport, spectacle, and gender. In K. Young & P. White (Ed.), Sport And Gender in Canada (2nd ed.) (pp.212-234).Canada: Oxford University Press.
  11. ↑ Gill, R.C. (2007). Gender and the Media. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  12. ↑ Billings, A.C. (2007). From Diving Boards to Pole Vaults: Gendered Athlete Portrayals in the “Big Four” Sports at the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics. Southern Communication Journal, 72(4), 329-344.
  13. ↑ Caple, H., Greenwood, K., & Lumby, C. (2011). What League? The Representation of Female Athletes in Australian Television Sports Coverage. Media International Australia, 140, 137-146
  14. ↑ James, C. E. (2005). Race in Play: Understanding the Socio-Cultural Worlds of Student Athletes. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc.
  15. ↑ Hardy, E. (2015). The female ‘apologetic’ behaviour within Canadian women’s rugby: athlete perceptions and media influences. Sport in Society, 18(2), 155-167.
  16. ↑ James, C. E. (2005). Race in Play: Understanding the Socio-Cultural Worlds of Student Athletes. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press Inc. p. 128
  17. ↑ Hardy, E. (2015). The female ‘apologetic’ behaviour within Canadian women’s rugby: athlete perceptions and media influences. Sport in Society, 18(2), 155-167.
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