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Documentation:FIB book/Ankle Ligament Injuries among Association Football (Soccer) Players

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Introduction

The sport of association football, or more frequently addressed as “soccer” in North America, is one of the most popular sports in the world. Soccer involves running, jumping and kicking actions. Hence, according to Dela Bela et al, the players undergo “asymmetrical loads to the body,..., resulting in lateral ligament lesions (anterior tibiofibular or calcaneofibular ligament) induce lateral laxity…”[1].

The incidences of soccer player injuries are not some uncommon phenomena. As per Giza et al, in professional football games played, there are on average 13~35 injuries per 1000 playing hours, or “one injury every 0.8 ~ 2 matches”[2] and lead to a socioeconomic impact of “30 billion USD per year.”[2]. Of all types of injuries, the percentage of ankle sprains is around 17 to 20%[3].

Ankle ligament anatomy

The ankle anatomy consists of three categories of ligaments: lateral collateral ligament complex, medial collateral ligament complex (also referred as “deltoid ligament”), and distal tibiofibular ligament complex. Within the scope of this literature review, most of the studies focus on ankle ligament injuries.

This literature review covers various foot and ankle injury mechanisms identified and summarised by previous literature, the test methods, lab setups and results from those researchers and injury prevention methods that have been tested and verified and could prevent or reduce ankle injuries. Test methods include real soccer case studies, athletes injury motion captures and studies on video watching; as well as testing on cadavers.

Injury Mechanism

Ankle sprains involve damage to one or more ligaments stabilizing the ankle joint. It can be classified into three groups based on the ligaments involved: lateral ankle sprains, high ankle sprains and medial ankle sprains.

  • Lateral ankle sprains are most often caused by excessive inversion of the foot which places high strain on the lateral ligaments
  • High ankle sprains are frequently caused by excessive external rotation and ankle dorsiflexion and results in that the high ankle ligaments, the distal tibiofibular ligaments, are injured
  • Medial ankle sprains are caused by excessive eversion[4].
Three types of ankle sprains.

Buckthorpe et al. studied sprain injuries during official top European football leagues by analyzing injury videos to determine mechanisms, situational patterns and biomechanics of the injuries. The study showed that 48 % were inversion injuries, 21 % were high ankle sprains and 17 % were eversion injuries [5]. Today, there are no injury criteria or threshold values identified for ankle sprains since there aren’t enough studies where forces or moments have been measured.

Lateral ankle sprain

Inversion injuries can happen in many situations, for example when tackling or being tackled, or when landing from a jump [5]. They cause high strain on the lateral ligaments and are therefore often connected to lateral ankle sprains. Inversion injuries often happen in combination with internal rotation or planar flexion. A case study of an accidental lateral sprain in a female handball player showed that the maximum ankle inversion moment was 89.9 Nm, compared to 17.2 ± 5.7 Nm in the non-injured reference trials. The reference trials intended to do a similar fake-and-cut movement as the injured case, but did not get injured. The maximum internal rotation moment measured during the injury was 49.2 Nm compared to 9.3 ± 4.8 Nm in the reference trials. The maximum inversion was 39.8॰ with a maximum angular velocity of 776.2°/s, the maximum internal rotation was 62.8° with angular velocity 584.1°/s and the peak planar flexion was 40.7° with a peak angular velocity of 411.5°/s [6].

Another case study on an accidental lateral ankle sprain in a male soccer player measured a peak inversion of 45° with a maximum angular velocity of 1290°/s, a peak internal rotation of 24° with a peak angular velocity of 580°/s and the peak planar flexion was measured to 50° with a peak angular velocity of 1240°/s [7].

These two case studies show different injury motions, especially with respect to internal rotation where the handball-specific study showed a much higher internal rotation. However, the soccer-specific study showed both higher inversion and planar flexion, even though the difference was smaller.

High ankle sprain

High ankle sprains in soccer usually happen in tackling situations or when sliding [5]. High ankle sprains, also called syndesmosis sprains, are less common than lateral ankle sprains but usually cause longer recovery times. It involves injuries to the tibiofibular ligaments and if untreated, it can cause pain, instability and degenerative joint disease in the tibiotalar joint. High ankle sprains are often caused by excessive external rotation or dorsiflexion in combination with high-impact forces [8]. A cadaver study with 10 male cadavers showed that the posterior talofibular ligament (PTaFL) was the most commonly injured structure during failure level external rotation of the foot. The study suggests that the mean failure torque of the ankle was 69.5 ± 11.7 Nm and the mean failure angle was 40.7 ± 7.3° [9].

Medial ankle sprain

Similarly to high ankle sprains, medial ankle sprains are more severe than lateral ankle sprains but less common. Similarly to lateral and high ankle sprains, they usually happen in tackling situations but also when landing from jumps[5]. There is less research done regarding this type of ankle sprain due to its lower prevalence, however case studies of televised injuries can be found. A case study of a non-contact medial ankle sprain in a male National Football League (NFL) player showed that a medial ankle sprain happened with a peak eversion of 50° and a maximum eversion velocity of 426°/s occurring right after initial contact. At the time of peak eversion, the dorsiflexion was 39° and the external rotation was 30°. This suggests a fundamentally different injury mechanism than that for lateral ankle sprains[10]. 

Complex (combined) ankle ligament injuries

Apart from the “three main categories of acute ankle sprains” [11] as summarized by Gaddi D, et al, there are also a variety of other less common injuries and combined/complex ankle injuries involving two or more categories of injuries such as “bimalleolar-equivalent” injury, in which the deltoid ligament complex (medial) and the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis (high ankle) are injured simultaneously. The sequence of this acute injury starts with the rotation exerts excessive tension on anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (AITFL) and as rotation continues, interosseous ligament and posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (PITFL) widens the syndesmotic gap [12].

Testing and Experimental Methods

Understanding the biomechanical mechanisms behind ankle injuries in soccer requires controlled testing methods capable of quantifying the forces, motions, and the tissue strains that are associated with typical injury scenarios[13]. Because injuries that happen in a game occur in very complex and high velocity conditions, researchers need to rely on a combination of motion capture, cadaver testing, and computational modeling to recreate the mechanisms of the injury[14].

In Vivo Motion Capture and Video Analysis

High speed motion capture and multi camera video reconstruction have been used to identify ankle kinematics during gameplay and controlled cutting or landing tasks[15]. Buckthorpe et al. performed a systematic video analysis of 140 ankle sprain cases in elite European footballers, the inversion and external rotation angles at injury onset was looked at and they were linked to the situational patterns. Things such as tackling or pressing[5]. Their study gave a real world validation for the previously lab based hypothesis that excessive inversion was the dominant injury mechanism.

Further lab work done by Liu et al. used 3D motion analysis to measure ankle and knee kinematics during side step cutting under different shoe collar designs[16]. They found that mid cut shoes actually reduce ankle inversion angle and moment when compared to low cut designs, reporting approximately a 10-15% decrease in peak inversion angle and loading under cutting conditions. This suggests that the stiffness of the footwear changes the ankle load distribution[16]. These in vivo studies are quite powerful for connecting real movements to injury risk metrics such as peak inversion velocity and internal rotation moments. However these studies are limited by measurement accuracy during high speed, multiplanar movements, and by the fact that it is ethically complex to replicate injuries on human subjects[17].

Cadaver Mechanical Testing

Cadaver testing allows for the controlled loading of ankle joints to failure. This gives tissue level tolerance data that cannot be gained ethically in vivo. A study performing external rotation loading experiments on ten male cadaver ankles, identified a mean failure torque of about 70 Nm for lateral ligament sprain failure and an ankle rotation of about 41 degrees[18]. The posterior talofibular ligament was the first structure to fail[18]. In the same way another experiment was performed using axial torsion rigs to compare ligament failure modes in dorsiflexion vs. plantarflexion. This showed that high ankle sprains occur at higher torques and angles than lateral sprains[19].

These studies give quantitative thresholds that can be used to further inform computational model calibration and injury risk criteria. However cadaver samples are often from older individuals with a reduced ligament stiffness, and a lack in muscle activation. This can limit translation to younger athlete tissue properties[20].

Computational and Finite Element (FE) Modeling

To help bridge the gap between static cadaver tests and complex live movements, researchers are able to use finite element and multibody models.

For example, a study developed a validated FE model of the ankle joint by combining non linear ligament behavior and subject specific geometry. By modeling inversion and external rotation impacts, they were able to reproduce failure patterns as seen in cadaver testing, and predict stress concentrations on the anterior talofibular ligament at 35-35 degrees of inversion which aligns with the lateral ankle sprain mechanism[21].

More recent musculoskeletal model studies are able to combine inverse dynamics with EMG based muscle activation. This helps to enable the estimation of internal joint reaction forces, even more specifically in soccer specific movements such as cutting or landing from a jump[22]. These simulations are used in further evaluating scenarios that would be unsafe to perform in person.

While these computer methods are able to give a repeatable experiment, their accuracy depends on validation against actual experimental data. Differences between simplified geometries and actual anatomy, or the neglect of neuromuscular feedback, can meaningfully alter predicted injury thresholds and must be carefully interpreted[2].

Integration and Limitations

When all of these three approaches are taken together, they each have their strengths and limitations:

- Video/motion capture gives ecological validity but low loading precision - Cadaver testing gives mechanical precision but a lower physiological realism - Computational modeling gives controllability but is reliant on accurate validation data.

Current Solution and Injury Preventions

To prevent ankle injuries, proper warm-up, targeted balance training, and controlled movement techniques are essential[23]. Additionally, external mechanical supports can help stabilize the joint and reduce the risk of injury. Typical external supports are taping and ankle braces.

Ankle Taping

Ankle taping is a commonly used method to support and stabilize the ankle joint, particularly in sports. It is generally applied using two different techniques: rigid taping and kinesiology taping.

Rigid taping

Rigid taping employs non-elastic tape that provides mechanical restriction of joint motion, thereby enhancing stability and protecting ankles that are prone to injury or functional instability[24]. This taping technique effectively produces an immediate restriction in ankle mobility, thereby contributing to joint stabilization. However, restricting movement at the ankle can compromise balance or stability in other joints. For example, limiting dorsiflexion may cause a compensatory increase in knee valgus during drop-jump tasks and a reduction in lower-limb stability, thereby introducing secondary biomechanical risk factors for injury[23]. Furthermore, by limiting ankle mobility, rigid taping can impair postural control and movement freedom, which may adversely affect athletic performance. To mitigate these limitations, alternative approaches such as kinesiology taping have been proposed[24].

Kinesiology taping

Kinesiology taping uses an elastic tape that supports the ankle joint while allowing a greater degree of freedom of movement compared to rigid sports tape[25]. It enhances proprioception and helps the ankle maintain its normal position, thereby increasing joint stability specially for players with functional ankle instability[24]. The use of kinesiology tape has been shown to improve dynamic balance, muscle strength, and overall postural control immediately after application[24][25]. When applied for a longer period, such as 48 hours, it can further enhance dynamic balance, making it a useful approach for managing chronic ankle instability[26]. In addition to these stabilizing effects, kinesiology taping has been associated with improved gait function and mobility specific for players with severe lateral ankle sprains, supporting its role in facilitating functional recovery[27]. The tape is also reported to alleviate pain by stimulating cutaneous mechanoreceptors and enhancing sensory feedback. Furthermore, improvements in force sense accuracy suggest that kinesiology taping may contribute to better neuromuscular control during movement[27].

Ankle taping in general increases stability by reducing inversion and eversion motion, the main directions of ankle sprains, without limiting plantarflexion or dorsiflexion. It also decreases the incidence of ankle sprains without negatively affecting speed, power, agility, or balance[28]. However, since ankle taping can be expensive and the technique is difficult to learn, its regular use in soccer remains limited[3].

Braces

Several studies indicate that wearing ankle braces can reduce the frequency and risk of acute ankle sprains injuries significantly[29][30]. Wearing an ankle brace can be particularly effective for athletes who have previously suffered an ankle injury. Studies have shown that these athletes have significantly lower rates of recurrent injuries when wearing a brace[31]. Research suggests that braces primarily contribute to secondary prevention, i.e., reducing the risk of re-injury, while they have only a little effect in preventing initial injuries[30].

The effect is not solely attributed to mechanical stabilization, but primarily to improved proprioceptive control: the brace improves the perception and responsiveness of the ankle joint, enabling faster muscular stabilization. This means that the functional recovery of the damaged sensory systems is the central mechanism, not merely the restriction of movement. In addition, there were no negative effects on other joints, especially the knee. Braces are therefore considered a cost-effective, simple, and reusable measure for ankle injury prevention in soccer[31].

Many players are concerned that wearing an ankle brace could negatively affect their athletic performance and are therefore reluctant to wear one[32]. However, the results of a study show that this perception cannot be objectively confirmed. Although it has been proven that braces slightly restrict certain movements, such as inversion, eversion, plantar flexion, and dorsiflexion, the study also shows that these restrictions had no measurable effect on technical skills such as kicking accuracy or agility. In healthy recreational athletes, wearing an ankle brace has no significant effect on shooting accuracy, shooting speed, or agility[32]. However, it should be noted that these results refer to recreational athletes. In professional soccer players, whose technical precision and movement sequences are much more finely tuned, the influence of a brace on performance could be different[32].

A new approach is adaptive ankle braces. One example is Betterguards technology, which stabilizes the ankle joint only at the moment of a potentially damaging movement. These braces are based on a miniaturized hydraulic system consisting of a semi-flexible piston filled with fluid and a valve mechanism[33]. During slow and natural movements, the valve remains open, allowing the fluid to circulate freely and maintaining natural freedom of movement. However, if a fast, abrupt movement occurs (∼300°/s), such as when the ankle twists, the valve closes within milliseconds due to flow resistance. This blocks the movement before the ligaments are overstretched, effectively protecting the joint[33].

Demonstration of Betterguards adaptive ankle brace technology[33]

The adaptive orthosis thus combines protection and mobility and differs from conventional bandages or tape bandages, which permanently restrict the joint. It helps maintain proprioception and is described by users as comfortable, breathable, and secure. Studies suggest that the technology is at least as effective as tape bandages in rehabilitation after an ankle injury, while also being more acceptable to wear and less time-consuming[33].

Discussion

Since understanding ankle sprain biomechanics requires comparing how different research methods capture the kinematic and loading conditions that lead to injury, some studies were specifically selected due to their different test methods applied. The large-scale systematic work by Buckthorpe et al.[5] using video-based motion analyses offer strong ecological validity because they analyze injuries that occur in those real competitive soccer match environments. Their dataset of 140 elite-level sprains highlights inversion as the dominant mechanism and identifies situational factors such as tackling and unbalanced landings that are otherwise difficult to replicate experimentally. However, despite their high external validity, video studies cannot directly quantify internal joint loading or ligament strain, which limits their use in establishing mechanical injury thresholds.

In contrast, Bagehorn et al.[6] and Gehring et al.[7] apply vivo accidental-injury case studies. Those cases provide them with precise kinematic measurements of actual sprain events captured in controlled laboratory environments and offer some rare insights into test parameters such as real-time inversion velocity, internal rotation, and plantarflexion when an ankle injury occurs. While their reported inversion velocities are over 700 deg/s (776.2 deg/s max inversion from Bagehorn et al. and 1290 deg/s max from Gehring et al.), both go far beyond those in voluntary movements, the strength of their studies could also become sources of their limitations, as each documents focus on a specific single injury case, meaning the variability across individuals, action movements upon injury, and joint geometries etc. could all limit generalizability of their conclusions. This makes them essential for illustrating “how an ankle ligament sprains” or “how an ankle injury could occur”; however, it is still insufficient for establishing general and perhaps universal biomechanical thresholds.

It is noticeable to mention that for direct loading data from vivo studies, researchers such as Wei et al.[9] designed cadaveric experiments. They provide controlled mechanical loading to failure and allow researchers to quantify ligament tolerance to external rotation and dorsiflexion forces. To address the lack of direct loading data from in vivo studies, cadaveric experiments such as those by Wei et al.[9] provide controlled mechanical loading to failure, allowing researchers to quantify ligament tolerance to external rotation and dorsiflexion forces. These tests show that the posterior talofibular ligament and syndesmotic structures fail at torques around ~70 Nm, offering valuable anchor points for computational model calibration. However, cadaver ligaments, due to limitations of donors' age and occupations when alive, lack the active neuromuscular contributions and tissue properties of young athletes, limiting direct translation to sport contexts. Therefore, cadaveric data only function best when combined with in vivo kinematic inputs and computational modelling rather than as standalone representations of athlete injury behaviour.

Finally, preventive interventions such as taping and bracing demonstrate how biomechanical evidence translates into applied injury mitigation. Studies examining prophylactic supports, including Romero-Morales et al. on taping[23], Surve et al. on semirigid braces[31], and Krombholz et al. on adaptive brace systems[33], show consistent reductions in inversion–eversion motion and meaningful decreases in recurrent sprain incidence. Notably, Surve et al. found a fivefold reduction in reinjury with a semirigid brace, while adaptive hydraulic braces offer protection only during rapid inversion, preserving natural mobility during normal play. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that mechanical restriction is only one component of prevention; enhanced proprioception and athlete compliance play equally important roles. Still, most intervention studies remain limited to nonelite samples or laboratory tasks, indicating that future work should validate these technologies under match-like conditions and in professional populations.

Future Research Priorities

Research on ankle sprains is mostly done through case studies of individual injury cases. While these give an understanding of the real-world injury mechanisms, the results are hard to generalize since they only represent one individual athlete. To be able to use the result to design injury prevention methods, more research needs to be done to reduce variability. That could either be done by computational models, cadavers or by looking at more case studies that the current research has done.

Although taping and bracing are established preventive measures, research in this field remains limited and should be expanded considerably. In addition to the well-documented effects of taping in lateral ankle sprains, taping methods should also be investigated for less-studied injury types such as medial or high ankle sprains. Also more studies are needed to clarify how effective these interventions are specially for players without prior ankle injuries, as most current work focuses on secondary prevention. Future research should include larger and more diverse athlete groups, particularly professionals, and use long-term, game-like testing conditions. Standardized protocols combining motion analysis and sensor data could help reveal how different supports influence biomechanics and proprioception. Moreover, adaptive brace technologies require broader real-world validation to assess their long-term protective effects, comfort, and player acceptance.


References

  1. ↑ L. C. Guenka, A. R. M. Pelegrinelli, M. F. Silva, L. F. Dela Bela, A. C. Carrasco, A.  Cardoso, C. F. Trigo, J. M. Dias, F. M. Moura, J. G. McVeigh and J. R. Cardoso, "Effects  of isokinetic and proprioceptive training after lateral ankle ligament reconstruction: A case  report," Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies, vol. 40, pp. 1283-1288, 2024.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 E. Giza, C. Fuller, A. Junge and J. Dvorak, "Mechanisms of Foot and Ankle Injuries in  Soccer," The AmericanJournal of Sports Medicine, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 550-554, 2003. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 H. Tropp, C. Askling and J. Gillquist, "Prevention of ankle sprains," American Journal of  Sports Medicine, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 259-262, 1985. 
  4. ↑ Z. Kramer, Y. Woo Lee and R. M. Shrick, "Acute Ankle Sprains," Clinics in Podiatric  Medicine and Surgery, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 117-138, 2023.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 M. Buckthorpe, E. Verhagen, P. D'Hooghe, O. Leonardo, S. Di Paolo and F. Della Villa,  "Systematic video analysis of ankle sprain injuries in elite male football (soccer): Injury  mechanisms, situational patterns, biomechanics and neurocognitive errors study: A study  on 140 consecutive players," Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc., pp. 1-15, 2025. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 T. Bagehorn, K. Bill, P. Mai, T. Krosshaug and U. G. Kersting, "A biomechanical report of  an acute lateral ankle sprain during a handball-specific cutting movement," Sports  Biomechanics, pp. 1-17, 2024. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 D. Gehring, W. S, Mornieux and A. Gollhofer, "How to sprain your ankle – a biomechanical  case report of an inversion trauma," Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 46, pp. 175-178, 2013.
  8. ↑ K. L. Markolf, S. Jackson, and D. R. McAllister, “Force and displacement measurements of the distal fibula during simulated ankle loading tests for high ankle sprains,” Foot & Ankle International, vol. 33, no. 9, pp. 779–786, 2012, doi: 10.3113/FAI.2012.0779.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 F. Wei, M. R. Villwock, E. G. Meyer, J. W. Powell and R. C. Haut, "A Biomechanical  Investigation of Ankle Injury Under Excessive External Foot Rotation in the Human  Cadaver," Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, vol. 132, no. 9, pp. 091001-1 - 091001-4,  2010.
  10. ↑ F. E. Wade, K.-M. Mok and D. T.-P. Fong, "Kinematic analysis of a televised medial ankle  sprain," Asia-Pacific Journal of Sports Medicine, Arthroscopy, Rehabilitation and  Technology, vol. 12, pp. 12-16, 2018.
  11. ↑ D. Gaddi, A. Mosca, M. Piatti, D. Munegato, M. Catalano, G. Di Lorenzo, M. Turato, N.  Zanchi, D. Piscitelli, K. Chui, G. Zatti and M. Bigoni, "Acute Ankle Sprain Management: An  Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews," Frontiers in Medicine, vol. 9, pp. 1-12, 2022.
  12. ↑ K. Liu, X. Ji and P. Su, "Advancements in minimally invasive treatment of deltoid ligament  injuries combined with distal tibiofibular syndesmosis injuries," BMC Surgery, vol. 25, no.  50, 2025
  13. ↑ L. Nolan and A. Lees, "The biomechanics of soccer: A review," Journal of Sports Sciences,  vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 211-234, 1998
  14. ↑ X. Suo, W. Tang and Z. Li, "Motion Capture Technology in Sports Scenarios: A Survey,"  Sensors, vol. 24, no. 9, 2024.
  15. ↑ S. e. a. Paolo, "Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Biomechanical Factors During  90° Change of Direction are Associated to Non-Contact ACL injury in Female Soccer  Players," International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 887-897,  2023.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 S. e. a. Liu, "Effects of shoe collar types on ankle and knee biomechanics characteristics  when performing the side-step cutting task," Sports Biomechanics, pp. 1-17, 2023.
  17. ↑ S. Sykes, A. Morgan, S. Moores, W. Davison, J. Beck and A. Holmes, "The advantages  and limitations of an in vivo test system for investigating the cytotoxicity and fibrogenicity of  fibrous dusts," Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 51, pp. 267-23, 1983.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 P. Khambete, E. Harlow, J. Ina and S. Miskovsky, "Biomechanics of the Distal Tibiofibular  Syndesmosis: A Systematic Review of Cadaveric Studies," Foot & Ankle Orthopaedics,  vol. 6, no. 2, 2021.  
  19. ↑ S. Melanson and V. L. Shuman, "Acute ankle sprain," PubMed, 2023.
  20. ↑ A. Amadasi, N. Merusi and C. Cattaneo, "How reliable is apparent age at death on  cadavers?," International Journal of Legal Medicine, vol. 129, no. 4, pp. 913-918, 2014.
  21. ↑ H.-Y. Zhang, Z. Lou, Z. Liu, Z. Zhu and H. Wang, "Finite element analysis of the  correlation between lateral collateral ligament injury of the ankle joint and subtalar articular  cartilage injury," China Journal of orthopaedics and traumatology, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 626- 632, 2025.  
  22. ↑ R. J. Butler, M. E. Russell and R. Queen, "Effect of soccer footwear on landing  mechanics,” Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports," Scandinavian Journal  of Medicine & Science in Sports, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 129-135, 2012.  
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 C. Romero-Morales, A. Matilde-Cruz, M. García-ArrabeIII, F. Higes-Núñez, A. Días Lópes,  S. Jiménez Saiz, H. Pareja-Galeano and D. López-López, "Assessing the effect of  prophylactic ankle taping on ankle and knee biomechanics during landing tasks in healthy individuals: A cross-sectional observational study," Sao Paulo Med J., vol. 142, pp. 1-8,  2024.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 B.-G. Lee and J.-H. Lee, "Immediate effects of ankle balance taping Immediate effects of  ankle balance taping balance of young players with functional ankle instability,"  Technology and Healthcare, vol. 23, pp. 333-341, 2015.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 S. Fereydounnia, A. Shadmehr, B. A. Moghadam, S. T. Moghadam, S. M. Mir, S. Slemi  and F. Pourkazemi, "Improvements in strength and functional performance after Kinesio  taping in semi-professional male soccer players with and without functional ankle  instability," The Foot, vol. 41, pp. 12-18, 2019.
  26. ↑ P. Harry-Leite, M. Paquete, T. Parada, J. A. Fraiz and F. Ribeiro, "Kinesiology taping  improves balance in football players with chronic ankle instability," Journal of Bodywork &  Movement Therapies, vol. 40, pp. 455-460, 2024. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 M. K. Kim and Y. J. Shin, "Immediate Effects of Ankle Balance Taping with Kinesiology  Tape for Amateur Soccer Players with Lateral Ankle Sprain: A Randomized Cross-Over  Design," Medical Science Monitor, vol. 23, pp. 5534-5541, 2017.
  28. ↑ S. M. Stryker, A. M. Di Trani, C. ". Swanik, J. J. Glutting and T. W. Kaminski, "Assessing  performance, stability, and cleat comfort/support in collegiate club soccer players using  prophylactic ankle taping and bracing," Research in Sports Medicine, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 39- 53, 2016.
  29. ↑ M. T. Gross and H.-Y. Liu, "The Role of Ankle Bracing for Prevention of Ankle Sprain  Injuries," Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 572-577,  2003. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 K. Thijs, B. Huisstede, E. Goedhart and F. Backx, "The preventive effect of a soccer specific ankle brace on acute lateral ankle sprains in girls amateur soccer players: study  protocol of a cluster-randomised controlled trial," Study Protocol, vol. 25, pp. 152-156,  2019.  
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 I. Surve, M. P. Schwellnus, T. Noakes and C. Lombard, "A Fivefold Reduction in the  Incidence of Recurrent Ankle Sprains in Soccer Players Using the Sport-Stirrup Orthosis,"  American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 601-606, 1994.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 A. R. Putnam, S. N. Bandolin and B. J. Krabak, "Impact of Ankle Bracing on Skill  Performance in Recreational Soccer Players," American Academy of Physical Medicine  and Rehabilitation, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 574-579, 2012. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 D. Krombholz, S. Willwacher, T. Consmüller, A. Linden and B. Z. J. Utku, "Comparison of  an Adaptive Ankle Brace to Conventional Taping for Rehabilitation of Acute Ankle Injury in  Young Subelite Soccer Players: A Pilot Study," Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, vol. 33, pp.  562-569, 2024.


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