Disproportionate representation of females in the sports industry

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

Serena Williams and Caster Semenya share many similarities. Both being of African decent, their athleticism is often subject to commentary grounded in stereotypes of black people being hyper-masculine (Frisby, 2017)[1]. Serena Williams and Caster Semenya are often compared to men since their physical build is very athletic and muscular. This often leads to their accomplishments and talent being overlooked. However, Serena Williams’ testosterone range is never questioned, and her abilities are never seen as unfair within her sport, yet Caster is consistently scrutinized and punished by her institution. So why is Serena Williams treated differently in sports than Caster Semenya? Well, it appears that Serena is questioned less since her body composition and hip-to-waist ratio is more feminine than that of Caster Semenya. Serena may be subjected to global body shaming over her muscular body, but Caster is subjected to gender misidentification because of less feminine and more muscular body. This is because of her naturally higher testosterone levels which the media has not been shy about pointing out.

In recent years, a controversial rule made by the IAAF (International Association of Athletics Federation) that limited testosterone levels in women’s athletics sparked backlash after significantly reducing the range of testosterone in effort to even out the playing field. This significantly affects two groups of women; hyperandrogenic women and trans women.  Thus, sparking debate as to what is more important to the IAAF; fairness or inclusion?

IAAF ruling as of November 1st 2018:

(a) she must be recognised at law either as female or as intersex (or equivalent);[2]

(b) she must reduce her blood testosterone level to below five (5) nmol/L for a continuous period of at least six months (e.g., by use of hormonal contraceptives); and[2]

(c) thereafter she must maintain her blood testosterone level below five (5) nmol/L continuously (ie: whether she is in competition or out of competition) for so long as she wishes to remain eligible.[2]

In 2011, the testosterone limits for women jumped from <10nmol/L to 4nmol/L. This ruling was taken to court by Dute Chand and the Indian Sport ministry and shot down. The IAAF brought in the rule based on the idea that there is “difference(s) in athletic performance between males and females is known to be predominantly due to higher levels of androgenic hormones in males resulting in increased strength and muscle development” (IAAF, 2018)[2] and to promote fairness. The policy returned to <10nmol/L until 2018 when 5nmol/L became the standard.

Testosterone in sports

Testosterone is an androgen that works as a steroid hormone influencing one’s physiology such as increasing one’s ability to build muscle and physical behaviours, such as aggression. It is found in large quantities in males and smaller quantities in females. Testosterone naturally increases aggression and enhances competitiveness, increases muscle mass stimulating erythropoiesis and promotes competitive behaviour (Hirshberg, 2018)[3]. These are therefore illegal to supplement with in most major sporting events.

Hyperandrogenism

Hyperandrogenism is excess levels of androgen's in a woman’s body and its effects on development (Yildiz, 2006)[4]. Most women with hyperandrogenism will have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) or differences/disorder in sex development (DSD). In recent studies of elite female athletes, the prevalence of disordered sex development is 7 per 1000 which is greatly larger than the general population (Bermon et al. 2015)[5]. Dutee Chand and Caster Semenya are leading examples of this population. In 2011, the IAAF stated that there are major differences in male and female sporting since “higher levels of androgenic hormones in males resulting in increased strength and muscle development” (IAAF, 2018)[2] which brought on a rule implementation that limited women with hyperandrogenism from participating in certain events if their testosterone levels were above 5nmol/L (IAAF, 2018)[2]. So, women born with differences/disorders in sex development (DSD) like Dutee Chand or Caster Semenya are now given a handicap which will slow them down when competing at a world stage.

Trans-women and testosterone

The research conducted on trans-women in sport and the normal range of testosterone for this population competing in world wide competitions is lacking. The normal range for males is defined as ‘more than 10 nanomoles per litre’ (10 nmol/L). If athletes are past this threshold, they cannot compete as female, regardless of other aspects of their biological presentation (Sudai, 2017)[6]. What can be found through research is that while using estrogen and antiandrogens, testosterone levels for trans-women are well below the levels of males of the same age (Anderson et al. 2018)[7]. Therefore, it is lower than 10.4-41.6 nmol/L, but most likely higher than 0.3-2.1 nmol/L, which is the average level for healthy young females (Braunstein, 2011)[8]. With all the research out in the world currently, it appears that trans-women can reach the average range of testosterone for women over time, yet it takes a while and needs constant hormonal control to achieve. Prior to the 5nmol/L ruling, the consensus instructed that male to female athletes will have to demonstrate that her total testosterone level in serum has been below 10 nmol/L for at least 12 months prior to her first competition (Sudai, 2017)[6]. While female to male transitioning athletes have no such restrictions (Sudai, 2017)[6].

Prior to the IAAF ruling of 5nmol/L, the rule was <10nmol/L which was quite broad and encompassing. But now with such specific regulations, inclusivity questions arise about those who are on hormones or have had surgery and yet their testosterone might be at a higher range. This debate goes further than just testosterone, but hits on inclusivity and fairness. Critiques say that transgendered women have gone through puberty as a male will carry some physiological advantages males have like skeletal structure and lung size (Anderson et al. 2018)[7] which span from androgens present during development. Therefore, critiques bring up the idea of what has more importance, inclusion or fairness? Really this debate isn’t valid at all. Most studies show that the few benefits in sports of having high levels of testosterone are no different than being taller.

References

  1. Frisby, C (2017). "A Content Analysis of Serena Williams and Angelique Kerber's Racial and Sexist Microagressions" (PDF). Open Journal of Social Sciences. Retrieved 2019-02-28.
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 International Association of Athletics Foundation (April 28 2018). "IAAF introduces new eligibility regulations for female classification". IAAF. Retrieved 2019-03-01. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. Hischberg, A (october 2018). "Hyperandrogenism in Female Athletes". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. Retrieved 2019-02-27. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. Yildiz, B (June 2006). "Diagnosis of Hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria". Best practice & research clinical endocrinology & metabolism. Retrieved 2019-02-27.
  5. Bermon, S (MARCH 1 2015). "Women With Hyperandrogenism in Elite Sports: Scientific and Ethical Rationales for Regulating". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. Retrieved 2019-03-01. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 Sudai, M (2017). "The Testosterone Rule: Constructing Fairness in Professional Sport". Journal of law and bioscience. Retrieved 2019-02-28.
  7. 7.0 7.1 Anderson, L.; et al. (April 11 2018). "Time to dispense with the male/female binary in sport? Analysis of the cases of Laurel Hubbard and Mack Beggs". British Journal of Sports Medicine. Retrieved 2019-02-27. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. Braunstein, G.; et al. (2011). "Testosterone reference ranges in normally cycling healthy premenopausal women". The journal of sexual medicine. Retrieved 2019-02-28. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)