Course:PHYS350/Central Forces

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Central forces are forces between two particles that depend only on the distance between the particles and point from one particle to another. Central forces are conservative (why?). Furthermore, if we look at a central force between two particles we can separate the motion of the center of mass from the relative motion of the particles reducing the complexity of the problem.

Separation of Motion

We have two particles of masses and located at positions and . Furthermore, let's define . Let's assume that the potential depends only on the realtive position of the two particles. We can write out the Lagrangian as

where is the direction of the acceleration due to a uniform gravitational field.

Let's define to be the position of the center of mass

so

and

Lagrangian

Let's write out the Lagrangian using the new coordinates

         

         

Notice that the middle terms in the first two sets of parentheses and the final terms in the final set cancel each other out and we are left with

where is the total mass and the reduced mass is

So we find that for two bodies the dynamics reduces to the motion of the center of mass (possibly in a uniform gravitational field) and the motion of single particle about the center of mass.

Angular Momentum

Let's calculate the total angular momentum of the system. We know from the results on many-particle systems that the angular momentum of the system will separate into the angular momentum about the center of mass and that of the center of mass. Furthermore, if , the internal forces do not contribute to the change in the angular momentum. We have

     

where and .

We know from the results on many-particle systems in a uniform gravitational field that the internal angular momentum () of the two-body system is conserved. We could have seen this from separation of the internal and external degrees of freedom in the Lagrangian.

General Results

We can treat the central force between two particles as a force between a fixed center that we take to be the origin and a single particle. We have

Taking the particular case of the results from the first section where the potential does not depend on direction, we know that the angular momentum of the particle is conserved. This means that the motion will be restricted to a plane that we will take to be the equatorial plane () without a loss of generality. Let's write the Lagrangian in spherical coordinates. First let's write the position of the particle in terms of the spherical coordinates. We have

and

so

Lagrangian

Let's write out the Lagrangian in terms of the spherical coordinates

Conserved Quantities

First let's notice that so is conserved. Also so is conserved as well.

Let's calculate the conserved momentum,

which has units of angular momentum. It is simply the angular momentum about the axis.


Equations of Motion

We can also use Lagrange's equation to get the equations of motion

If and or initial, then and stays constant. We take and initially, so the particle remains in the equatorial plane as we expected from the conservation of angular momentum.

Now for the radial motion,

Using the initial conditions we have

where the dependence of the acceleration on the angle has been included through the conserved quantity , separating the radial equation from the angular equation. The first term is the force between the two bodies and the second term is a 'fictitous' force because of the spherical coordinates. We will solve this differential equation for two special cases, but we can get a good idea of the nature of the motion by looking at the conserved quantities.

Bounded Motion

First, we have

so the path subtends equal areas in equal times. Given a solution for the radial motion we can determine the angular motion

Second we have the Hamiltonian,

Because the Hamiltonian is conserved, let's take its initial value to be

We can solve this for to get

which is very similar to the one-dimensional case but with an added term for the centrifugal force. Unless as with and is negative, motion of the the particle is bounded if . This point of closest approach is called the pericenter. Depending on the potential and the initial conditions, the motion may be bounded at large as well. In particular if the potential is attractive and positive there is always a point of maximum distance. The point of maximum radius is called the apocenter.

If the motion is bounded at both large and small radius, we can calculate the time for the particle to go from the minimum to maximum radius -- this is one half of the period of the complete radial motion as we did for the one-dimensional pendulum. The angular motion as we shall find can have a different (and not usually comeasureable) period. We have

and rearranging we have

Specific Results

Spherical Harmonic Oscillator

Central Force Solution

For a spherical harmonic oscillator,

Bounds of Motion

Let's first calculate the bounds of the motion we have

which yields a quadratic equation for ,

which yields the solutions

Radial Motion

We will first use the conservation of energy to calculate the radial motion, we have

             

To perform this integral let's make the substitution

to give


so

     

with

Angular Motion

What remains is to solve for the motion in the direction. Using the conservation of angular momentum we have

We can integrate this directly to yield

Notice that the angular frequency is , one-half of the radial frequency.

If we substitute the values of and we get

It is possible to write as a function of and find that it is the equation for an ellipse centered at the origin. This is left as an exercise for the reader.

The Shape of the Orbit

Let's step back and try to determine instead of . First we define so we have

and using the chain rule we get

We can substitute this into the energy equation to get

and rearranging

We add a constant to both sides of the equation to complete the square

We find that the derivative of a function squared plus four times the function itself yields a constant, so the function must be a sine or cosine. We have

We can write this in terms of the radius

This is the equation for an ellipse centered on the origin. The constant in front of the cosine is related to the shape of the ellipse

where is the square of the eccentricity of the ellipse ( and are the semimajor and semiminor axes). If and only if the spring constant is negative (repulsive spring), then the eccentricity can be greater than one (up to and the curve is a hyperbola centered on the origin. An interesting case is so . This gives a straight line passing a distance from the origin.

Cartesian Solution

We can solve the spherical harmonic oscillator in Cartesian coordinates as well. We have for the Lagrangian

which yields the following equation of motion for the coordinate

and similarly for the other directions. We find the following solution for the motion in the direction

with and similarly for the other coordinates. Since the value of is the same for all three directions we find that the figure is an ellipse. We can also calculate the value of

where for simplicity and without loss of generality we have restricted the motion to the plane. We have

     

We can rewrite these two cosines as a single cosine,

where

which has the same form as the result for the spherical analysis.

Gravity

For gravity we have

yielding the following Lagrangian,

Bounds of the Motion

Let's first calculate the bounds of the motion we have

which yields a quadratic equation for

which yields the solutions

For the case of an attractive force we find that if , only is greater than zero and this represents the point of closest approach. On the other hand if we have . For a repulsive force and again only is greater than zero if . If both and are negative, we cannot find a positive value of with .

Radial Motion

We can also solve for the radial velocity

Yielding the following equation for the time evolution

and let's make the substitution

to give the following integral

where we have assumed that . This gives

and for we have

Unfortunately we cannot invert this to find the radius as a function of time, but we can determine, the time to go from the minimum to the maximum radius in the case

so

Let's take $r_0=r_-$ so we have the time since pericenter to yield

We will revisit this result after deriving the shape of the orbit.

The Shape of the Orbit

Let's step back and try to determine instead of . First we define so we have

and using the chain rule we get

We can substitute this into the energy equation to get

and rearranging

Let's define the length and simplify the equation

Let's add to both sides of the equation and get

We have a function squared plus its first derivative squared being a constant. The function is clearly a trigonometric function we have

where

Rearranging the equation gives

which is the polar equation for an ellipse with its focus at the origin for . For the curve is a hyperbola. is a parabola and is a circle. (Contrast this with the spherical harmonic oscillator where the center of the ellipse was at the origin).

If we have a repulsive force (e.g. the force between two positive charges) because . The resulting curve is a hyperbola.

Conics.png

The figure shows the various conic sections as a function of the value , the eccentricity. The blue parabola has , the aqua ellipse has and the green circle has . The red hyperbola has . All of the curves have a focus at the origin and . The semi-latus rectum is the official name for the quantity which sets the size of the curve. In all cases the curve intersects the axis at . In a coordinate free way, the semi-latus rectum is the distance between the curve and the focus in the direction perpendicular to the point of closest approach.

What is the meaning of the two branches of the hyperbola? The left branch is for an attactrive force and the right branch is for a repulsive force.

More time dependence

We have for the time since pericenter as

Now what is the ratio in front. We have

so

and

where <m>M</m> is called the mean anomaly. Let <m>E=\arccos s</m> to give

where <m>E</m> is called the eccentric anomaly. Now let's substitute the result for <m>r</m> into <m>s</m> to yield

where <m>\theta=\phi-\phi_0</m>. <m>\theta</m> is known as the true anomaly.

With some trigonometric identities we can simplify this to

The final set of three equations are known as Kepler's equations because Kepler discovered them empirically for the motion of the planets.


Application: ICBM

To keep things simple we will first ignore the rotation of the Earth and then add in the rotational velocity to the initial conditions and the final position. Let's define some useful quantities in the non-rotating frame. First, the circular velocity,

The initial energy per unit mass is

where , so

and

and

We would like to know when the ICBM will land and how long it will take. First we have

with

so

gives the true anomalies where the orbit intersects the surface of the Earth. Notice for a circular orbit at the surface of the Earth, we have <m>\beta_1=1</m> and <m>e=0</m> so <m>\cos\theta</m> goes to 0/0 --- all angles are at the surface of the Earth. Clearly for other cases, the pericenter is within the Earth, so the IBCM travels from <m>\theta_0</m> to <m>2\pi-\theta_0</m>. Let's calculate the eccentric anomaly at the beginning of the journey,

and at the end of the journey it is <m>2\pi-E_0</m>. The time of flight is equal to the difference in the true anomalies times <m>P/2\pi</m>. We have

and

<m>\Delta t = \frac{ P}{2\pi} \left (2\pi - 2 M_0 \right )</m> gives the time of flight and <m>R \left (2 \pi - 2\theta_0\right)</m> gives the range. The value of <m>P/(2\pi)</m> is related to the semimajor axis through


Now let's translate from the rotating frame into the inertial frame. Let the initial velocity in the rotating frame be <m>v_R</m> in a direction that lies an angle <m>\delta_R</m> over the horizon (altitude) and makes angle angle <m>\alpha_R</m> with respect to north increasing toward the east (azimuth or heading).

The velocity in the rotating frame is given by

and in the non-rotating frame we have

where <m>l</m> is the latitude of the launch site and <m>\Omega</m> is the Earth's rotation rate. Let's calculate the total velocity and the tangential velocity in the inertial frame

and

The altitude in the inertial frame is given by

and the azimuth is given by

With the azimuth, range and initial latitude we can figure out where the ICBM will hit using spherical trigonometry and add in the rotation of the Earth during the flight

Cross Sections